Short CommunicationWho is the most demanding of them all? A multisource investigation of other-oriented perfectionism, socially prescribed perfectionism, and depressive symptoms
Introduction
Hewitt and Flett (1991) conceptualized perfectionism as a multidimensional personality trait composed of three dimensions: self-oriented perfectionism (demanding perfection from the self), other-oriented perfectionism (demanding perfection from other people), and socially prescribed perfectionism (perceiving that other people demand perfection). Socially prescribed perfectionism, and to a lesser extent self-oriented perfectionism, place people at risk for depressive symptoms (Smith, Sherry, Rnic et al., 2016). In contrast, other-oriented perfectionism is an inconsistent predictor of depressive symptoms (Chen, Hewitt, & Flett, 2017).
Nonetheless, though people high on other-oriented perfectionism might not themselves be depressed, they may promote socially prescribed perfectionism, and subsequently depressive symptoms, in other people (Sherry, Mackinnon, & Gautreau, 2016). Put differently, socially prescribed perfectionism's depressing consequences may be a legitimate response to the perfectionistic demands imposed on them by other people. In support, Smith, Sherry, Mushquash, et al. (2017) reported other-oriented perfectionism in mothers predicted longitudinal increases in daughters' depressive symptoms. Likewise, Smith et al. (2017) reported the overall level of other-oriented perfectionism in influencers (family members, romantic partners, and peers aggregated) predicted socially prescribed perfectionism in targets (undergraduates). However, whether some influencers' other-oriented perfectionism (e.g., mothers) is more relevant to the socially-prescribed perfectionism-depressive symptom link than other influencers' other-oriented perfectionism (e.g., peers) is unclear.
Indeed, evidence derives primarily from parent-child studies. Vieth and Trull (1999) reported mothers' and fathers' other-oriented perfectionism was not significantly related to socially prescribed perfectionism in students. In contrast, Cook and Kearney (2014) found other-oriented perfectionism in mothers, but not fathers, predicted socially prescribed perfectionism in children. Similarly, Smith, Sherry, Mushquash, et al. (2017) reported a small positive relationship between other-oriented perfectionism in mothers and socially prescribed perfectionism in daughters. And congruent with Cook and Kearney (2014), Smith et al. (2017) reported a non-significant relationship between other-oriented perfectionism in fathers and socially prescribed perfectionism in daughters. As such, other-oriented perfectionism in mothers appears to have a greater impact on offspring's socially prescribed perfectionism than other-oriented perfectionism in fathers. However, only two studies have examined the impact of both parental and non-parental influencers on socially prescribed perfectionism: Perera and Chang (2015) and Smith, Speth, Sherry, et al. (2017).
Perera and Chang (2015) reported that, among European-American undergraduates, the expectations prescribed by parents and the expectations prescribed by teachers predicted socially prescribed perfectionism. Nonetheless, Perera and Chang (2015) relied on targets' perceptions of other people's expectations. Smith, Speth, Sherry, et al. (2017) multisource study addressed this limitation by asking influencers to report directly on their own other-oriented perfectionism. Yet, Smith, Speth, Sherry, et al. (2017) analyzed all influencers as a single group. Hence, it is unclear if certain influencers' other-oriented perfectionism (e.g., mothers) has stronger ties to targets' socially prescribed perfectionism than other influencers' other-oriented perfectionism (e.g., peers). The relationship between influencers' other-oriented perfectionism and targets' depressive symptoms is also unclear (cf. Smith, Sherry, Chen et al., 2016). Lastly, other-oriented perfectionism and narcissistic grandiosity overlap substantially (Smith, Sherry, Chen et al., 2016). As such, research is needed testing the specificity of Smith, Speth, Sherry, et al. (2017) findings to other-oriented perfectionism versus narcissistic grandiosity.
Against this background, our primary aim was to test the extent to which other-oriented perfectionism in mothers, fathers, siblings, romantic partners, and peers is related to socially prescribed perfectionism and depressive symptoms in targets. Building on extant findings (Cook & Kearney, 2014; Smith, Sherry, Gautreau, et al., 2017; Smith, Sherry, Mushquash, et al., 2017), we anticipated other-oriented perfectionism in mothers, but not fathers, would indirectly predict targets' depressive symptoms via targets' socially prescribed perfectionism. Our secondary aim was to test the specificity of our model by substituting narcissistic grandiosity in place of other-oriented perfectionism. However, we lacked a strong empirical basis to formulate expectations regarding how other-oriented perfectionism in siblings, peers, and romantic partners, as well as narcissistic grandiosity in all types of influencers, impacts socially prescribed perfectionism and depressive symptoms in targets.
Section snippets
Participants
We recruited 310 undergraduates from Dalhousie University. Targets provided the email address for five members of their social network (influencers). Of the 1680 influencers emailed, 794 agreed to participate. Influencers were composed of mothers (n = 168), fathers (n = 102), siblings (n = 96), romantic partners (n = 85), peers (n = 241; friends and colleagues), and “others” (n = 102; e.g., cousins). Influencers categorized as “others” were excluded. The final sample of influencers (N = 692)
Descriptive statistics
Means, standard deviations, Cronbach's alpha, and bivariate correlations are in Table 1. Full information maximum likelihood estimation was used for missing data. Following Cohen's (1992) guidelines for small, medium, and large effects (r = .10, .30, .50), mothers' other-oriented perfectionism had a small positive relationship with targets' socially prescribed perfectionism. Similarly, siblings' other-oriented perfectionism had a moderate positive relationship with targets' socially prescribed
Discussion
Whether certain influencers' other-oriented perfectionism is more relevant to the socially prescribed perfectionism-depressive symptoms link as compared to other influencers' other-oriented perfectionism was unclear. Our multisource study addressed this gap in knowledge. As expected, other-oriented perfectionism in mothers indirectly predicted targets' depressive symptoms via a small positive association with targets' socially prescribed perfectionism. This finding complements research
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