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Discrepant and congruent high self-esteem: Behavioral self-handicapping as a preemptive defensive strategy

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Abstract

Discrepant high self-esteem (i.e., high explicit and low implicit self-esteem) has been associated with a number of defensive behaviors. This study investigated the use of behavioral self-handicapping as a preemptive defensive strategy among those with discrepant high self-esteem. Participants were told that an upcoming test of an important ability was only diagnostic of either exceptionally high or very low skills (i.e., only success or failure was diagnostic of ability) and were given the opportunity to behaviorally self-handicap by selecting from a range of performance-detracting versus neutral music choices. Results showed that when success was diagnostic, participants with discrepant high self-esteem engaged in significantly greater behavioral self-handicapping than other participants. This suggests that (1) the defensiveness of those with discrepant high self-esteem extends to the use of preemptive strategies such as self-handicapping, and (2) this defensiveness is triggered when the situation provides a test of exceptionally high ability.

Section snippets

Present Research

Participants were given the opportunity to preemptively self-handicap after being told of an upcoming test of nonverbal intelligence, which was described as unlike other intelligence tests to create greater performance uncertainty. The test was presented as diagnostic of ability for only either exceptionally high performers (making success diagnostic) or especially low performers (making failure diagnostic). Participants had the opportunity to behaviorally self-handicap by selecting music they

Participants

One hundred forty-three introductory psychology students (72 women) participated for partial course credit.

Self-esteem assessment

Explicit SE was assessed using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (1965; in Blascovich and Tomaka, 1991), completed during an initial web-based session (α = .92). Implicit SE was assessed using a self-esteem Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998), which measures the extent to which the self is associated with positive or negative words. Following the procedures

Analytical strategy

Following the methods used in previous research (e.g., Jordan et al., 2007) implicit and explicit SE were treated as continuous variables. Continuous predictor variables were standardized (M = 0, SD = 1). One standard deviation above and below the mean of SE variables was used to represent high and low values when testing simple effects.

Regression analyses were conducted using hierarchical steps. In Step 1, implicit SE, explicit SE, and diagnosticity were entered simultaneously. In Step 2, implicit ×

Discussion

Results supported the hypothesis that participants with discrepant HSE would be more likely than others to behaviorally self-handicap, but only when the upcoming test was diagnostic of exceptionally high ability. This suggests that the defensive behaviors observed among people with discrepant HSE extend to the domain of behavioral self-handicapping. Previous research has focused on post-hoc defensive behaviors following a self-relevant threat. In contrast, we found evidence for people with

Conclusion

The current study sheds additional light on the complexities of HSE and the adoption of self-handicapping behavior as a preemptive defensive strategy. These findings demonstrate that the defensiveness of those with discrepant HSE extends to the use of an anticipatory SE buffer, and that this defensiveness may be most likely to be triggered in situations of particular importance for those with discrepant HSE, such as a test diagnostic of exceptionally high ability.

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      This suggests that the upward comparison should not have connoted any negative information about participants' own performance quality or capabilities. Nonetheless, findings for malicious envy paralleled those in previous research (e.g., Jordan et al., 2003, 2005; Lupien et al., 2010; McGregor & Marigold, 2003) linking discrepant H-ESE to defensiveness in the face of threat. The lack of support for some of our predictions may stem from aspects of the study's methodology.

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      In addition, Bosson et al. (2003) found that defensive self-esteem individuals are more likely to display unrealistic optimism, while Jordan et al. (2003, 2009) found that participants with defensive self-esteem exhibit greater levels of ingroup bias. More recently, Lupien, Seery, and Almonte (2010) found that defensive self-esteem is associated with a greater tendency to engage in self-handicapping. That said, much of the evidence in support of defensive self-esteem appears somewhat indirect, and more upstream evidence would be beneficial.

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    We would like to thank Kimberly Arnold for her assistance in conducting the study and Sandra Murray for her comments on a previous version of this manuscript.

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