Effect of contemporary forest harvesting practices on headwater stream temperatures: Initial response of the Hinkle Creek catchment, Pacific Northwest, USA

doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2013.09.009

Forest Ecology and Management

Volume 310, 15 December 2013, Pages 680-691

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2013.09.009 Get rights and content

Highlights

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Summer stream temperatures changed following clearcut harvesting.
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Changes in canopy cover were slight due to logging slash deposited over streams.
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There was a variable response in maximum temperature changes among streams.
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Minimum temperatures were lower in all streams, perhaps due to increased baseflows.
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We observe no cumulative effect to stream temperatures at the watershed outlet.

Abstract

We investigated the effect of contemporary forest harvesting practices on warm-season thermal regimes of headwater streams using a Before-After-Control-Intervention (BACI) design within a nested, paired watershed study. We applied harvesting treatments to four headwater tributaries of Hinkle Creek, designed in accordance with the Oregon Forest Practices Act. Therefore, fixed-width buffer strips containing overstory merchantable trees were not left adjacent to the four non-fish-bearing streams. The summer following harvesting, we observed a variable temperature response across the four harvested streams. Mean maximum daily stream temperatures ranged from 1.5 °C cooler to 1.0 °C warmer relative to pre-harvest years. We also observed significantly lower minimum and mean daily stream temperatures, and recorded particularly low temperatures in treatment streams on days that minimum stream temperatures in reference streams were high. At the watershed scale, we did not observe cumulative stream temperature effects related to harvesting 14% of the watershed area in multiple, spatially-distributed harvest units across four headwater catchments. At the watershed outlet, we observed no change to maximum, mean, or minimum daily stream temperatures. We attribute the lack of consistent temperature increases in headwater streams to shading provided by a layer of logging slash that deposited over the streams during harvesting, and to increased summer baseflows. Comparisons of canopy cover before and after harvesting indicate little change in canopy cover when logging slash is considered, indicating that logging slash affected energy balances within the streams. However, other ecosystem-level effects of logging slash in forest streams are difficult to predict. In order to devise optimum practices related to in-stream slash management, forest scientists and policymakers should continue to study and consider the potential impacts of logging slash to stream ecosystems.

Introduction

Stream temperature is a first-order control of aquatic productivity, regulating oxygen solubility, organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling within the stream ecosystem (Weatherley and Gill, 1995, Ice, 2008), as well as metabolism and growth of aquatic organisms (Phinney and McIntire, 1965, Marr, 1966, Brett et al., 1969, Brett, 1971). Changes to prevailing thermal regimes stimulate physiological and behavioral response mechanisms in aquatic biota. For example, physiological stress and mortality (Brett, 1952, Moring and Lantz, 1975), and changes in growth rates, fecundity, trophic structure, competitive interactions, and timing of life history events (Brett, 1971, Sweeney and Vannote, 1978, Beschta et al., 1987, Hogg and Williams, 1996) are observed in communities of aquatic organisms exposed to changes in ambient water temperature. In extreme cases, changes to thermal characteristics may alter the stream environment to the extent that native species are extirpated from historic habitats. Pacific salmonids, cold-water fishes with an acute thermal tolerance of approximately 25 °C, inhabit freshwater streams during many stages of life history, and are thus particularly vulnerable to stream temperature increases (Brett, 1952).

Many interacting processes and mechanisms contribute to stream temperature patterns; however, energy budget analysis indicates that exposure to solar radiation is the primary temperature determinant in small, shallow streams (Brown, 1969, Johnson, 2004, Moore et al., 2005). In forested ecosystems of the Pacific Northwest, solar radiation exposure is limited by shading from the forest canopy. Extreme increases in reach-level stream temperatures are often observed when forest canopies are removed (Levno and Rothacher, 1967, Brown and Krygier, 1970, Swift and Messer, 1971). However, where stream buffers consisting of mature timber are maintained, preserving some percentage of pre-harvest canopy closure, investigators do not observe significant changes to stream temperature (MacDonald et al., 2003, Gomi et al., 2006). In the absence of shading provided by mature timber, there is some evidence that logging slash (coarse and fine woody and vegetative debris left after forest harvesting) may function as an agent of post-harvest shade, with potentially mitigating effects to temperatures of streams partially or fully covered by slash. For instance, Jackson et al. (2001) attributed a damped post-harvest temperature response of clearcut streams to exclusion of solar radiation due to a layer of logging slash that deposited over streams during harvesting.

A key focus of contemporary watershed management is the role of cumulative watershed effects from the summation of many seemingly benign individual activities that produce a significant additive effect (Beschta and Taylor, 1988). Forest practice regulations do not require retention of buffer strips comprised of overstory conifers around small, non-fish-bearing streams in some regions of Oregon. There is concern that reach-level stream temperature increases resulting from exposure of small, unbuffered streams may propagate into cumulative watershed effects that affect downstream salmonid habitats (Reid, 1998). In order to assess the likelihood of cumulative watershed effect, it is important to consider processes of stream thermal dynamics operating at the reach scale. Considerable research has focused on stream temperature effects of forest harvesting, however, much historic research occurred during the era of old growth conversion, using equipment and techniques that have been replaced by modern practices and before the current suite of forest practice rules were put into place. An investigation of the effects of timber harvest on stream temperatures undertaken on privately owned, intensively managed forest land with young, harvest-regenerated forest stands harvested using contemporary forest practices is necessary to assess the potential reach-level and watershed-scale stream temperature impacts of contemporary forest practices. The objectives of this study are threefold: (1) quantify summer stream temperature changes in four small, non-fish-bearing streams at the downstream boundary of clearcut harvest units the first summer after timber harvest; (2) quantify changes in canopy closure that resulted as a consequence of contemporary forest practices; and (3) investigate changes in stream temperature at the watershed outlet to discern the watershed-scale cumulative effect of harvesting multiple small, non-fish-bearing headwater streams.

Section snippets

Study design and location

We conducted this study as a part of the Hinkle Creek Paired Watershed Study (HCPWS). The HCPWS is a nested, paired watershed study located in southern Oregon approximately 40 km northeast of Roseburg, Oregon. The study area (Fig. 1), comprising the headwaters of Hinkle Creek, contains two fourth-order watersheds: a reference watershed, North Fork Hinkle Creek (NFH), and a treatment watershed, South Fork Hinkle Creek (SFH). Within these fourth-order watersheds, we selected six headwater (first

Stream temperature

Providing a thermal context for research results, Table 2 summarizes temperature data from all streams and years. The relationship between watershed size and stream temperature is evident when we compare temperatures from NFH (r) and SFH (t) to those observed in headwater streams (Table 2). The maximum stream temperature recorded in NFH (r) throughout the duration of the study is 19.2 °C (2003). Before timber harvest, the maximum temperature recorded in SFH (t) is 18.4 °C (2003), while a maximum

Change observed in individual streams

Timber harvest adjacent to four non-fish-bearing streams resulted in statistically significant effects to stream temperatures observed the first summer after harvest. Maximum daily temperatures of all four treatment streams changed significantly, however, magnitudes and directions of response varied among streams. In three streams, Clay (t), Russell (t), and BB (t) Creeks, the mean maximum daily temperature increased moderately by 1.1, 0.6, and 0.7 °C, respectively. However, in Fenton Creek (t),

Conclusions

Clearcut forest harvesting adjacent to four non-fish-bearing streams in southwestern Oregon triggered statistically significant changes to summer stream temperatures. Maximum daily stream temperatures responded significantly to the harvesting treatment, yet directions of response varied from stream to stream, as maximum temperatures in three streams became slightly warmer after harvesting and moderately cooler in the fourth. Magnitudes of maximum temperature changes were not as large as

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Cited by (20)

Stream temperature responses to forest harvesting with different riparian buffer prescriptions in northern California, USA
2024, Forest Ecology and Management
Forested riparian zones adjacent to headwater streams provide unique habitat attributes and influence water quantity and quality. Forest harvesting adjacent to and within these zones has led to changes in stream temperature (T_s) and impacts on aquatic ecosystems. As such, policies and regulations have sought to limit forest management activities in riparian zones; however, water temperature responses have been variable, necessitating additional research to improve our understanding of the effectiveness of contemporary riparian harvesting prescriptions in limiting water temperature increases after harvest. We sought to quantify the effects of three different riparian buffer prescriptions with increasing intensity of basal area removal (2–43% area harvested) on T_s in forested headwaters in northern California, USA. We measured T_s in 18 headwater catchments (12 harvested, 6 six unharvested references) during a pre-harvest year and two post-harvest years using 12 thermistors distributed longitudinally down each stream (i.e., 216 total sensors). We analyzed the T_s data to assess (1) the seasonal variability of seven-day moving average of daily maximum stream temperature (T_7-day-max) and (2) the relative importance of the different harvesting prescriptions and catchment physiographic characteristics in influencing the T_7-day-max. Our analysis indicated substantial changes in basal area and shade in the riparian areas with the most intensive harvesting treatment (i.e., 50% reduction in canopy cover). However, these changes in riparian canopy were poorly related to stream temperature. Results indicated a median T_7-day-max increase of ∼ 2 °C in the sites with the most intensive harvesting treatment. The greatest changes in seasonal T_7-day-max occurred during the summer and fall but only during the first year after harvesting. There was no evidence of increases in T_7-day-max during the second post-harvest year. While air temperatures in the riparian areas increased by 1–5 °C after harvesting, this warming did not directly transfer to strong warming in stream temperatures. Rather, random forest models revealed that T_7-day-max was more strongly related to topography (i.e., elevation) and climatic variability (i.e., changes in precipitation and stream stage) than to the riparian harvesting prescription or the harvesting period. Our study further highlights the challenges in understanding the thermal regimes of headwater streams and their responses to forest disturbances. Predictions of stream temperature responses to forest disturbances are complicated by the heterogeneity of the factors that influence this important physical water quality parameter. However, with global climate change and increasing pressures on water resources and aquatic ecosystems it is increasingly important to continue to provide insights into the relationships between forest management activities and the thermal regimes of headwater streams.
Local and sub-basin effects of timber harvests on stream macroinvertebrates in Hinkle Creek watershed
2022, Forest Ecology and Management
Citation Excerpt :
Upstream harvests can also affect downstream organisms if water quality or quantity changes are translated to downstream reaches. However, even within the harvested fishless tributaries themselves, changes to stream temperatures at Hinkle were minimal (Kibler et al., 2013). In three watersheds in western Oregon, including Hinkle, any increases in the 7-day moving average of daily maximum stream temperature detected in headwater streams within clear cuts attenuated within a few hundred meters of harvest boundaries (Bladon et al., 2018).
We studied the impacts of clear cut timber harvest over six-years, focusing on aquatic macroinvertebrate response using a BACI design. Data were collected before and after logging throughout a stream network to examine both local and downstream effects of upstream treatments. Sites were located in fishless headwater tributaries, fish-bearing tributaries and main stems in Hinkle Creek’s north fork (reference) and south fork (sequentially harvested) where benthic macroinvertebrates (from 2004 to 2009) and emergent insects (in 2005–2007 and 2009) were sampled. Pre-harvest (2004–2005) benthic macroinvertebrate composition was similar across sub-basins, with distinct longitudinal differences from tributaries to the main stems. At clear cut sites in fishless tributaries, benthic macroinvertebrate densities and percent Chironomidae increased, while taxa richness decreased, and these effects remained consistent for four years after the first harvest; aquatic insect emergence rates were also significantly higher in harvested v. reference fishless tributaries. No downstream macroinvertebrate responses were detected after the first harvest event. Following main stem harvest, confounded by a dam-break flood in December 2008, responses at main stem harvested sites were consistent with the localized responses observed in fishless tributaries, except benthic densities did not increase. While strong differences persisted among macroinvertebrates along the longitudinal gradient in the reference sub-basin, localized decreases in taxa richness and increased proportional contributions of generally disturbance tolerant chironomid midges among harvested sites resulted in altering the structure of invertebrate communities along the stream continuum. We conclude that additive effects of localized changes to instream resources along the stream continuum following successive harvest activities should be considered in plans for basin-wide timber harvests.
An evidence-based review of the effectiveness of riparian buffers to maintain stream temperature and stream-associated amphibian populations in the Pacific Northwest of Canada and the United States
2021, Forest Ecology and Management
Citation Excerpt :
The average of mean daily maximum effect sizes for 10 different riparian treatments including clearcuts ranged from 0 °C to 1.7 °C (Table 1). Clearcut treatments generally resulted in the largest effect size (i.e., >1.0 °C) except for one study where the effect size decreased after treatment and averaged 0.2 °C (Kibler et al., 2013). Kibler et al. (2013) attributed the small temperature response, in part, to shading from logging slash; Jackson et al. (2001; Table 1) reported a similar finding with regards to shading provided by slash.
We employed a systematic evidence review to evaluate empirical scientific evidence for the effectiveness of buffering headwater (typically non-fish-bearing) streams to maintain stream temperature and stream-associated amphibian populations in the Pacific Northwest of Canada and the United States. To address our synthesis objective, we identified thirteen temperature, seven amphibian, and two temperature/amphibian primary research studies that met objective inclusion criteria. We evaluated external validity for how study treatments inform or were linked to causal factors influencing temperature response (a) and how the sampled population represented or provided inference to an intended target population or landscape (b). The evidence indicated substantial variability in the temperature response to streamside buffers. The effect size for the mean 7-day maximum temperature metric showed a positive association when comparing no-buffers (clearcut) to treatments with wide buffers (≥30 m). However, this effect varied substantially and overlap existed in effect sizes among no-cut buffers, no-cut plus variable retention buffers, and no-cut patch buffers all ≤20 m wide. Large variability in effect size among treatments obscured any potential trend between effect size for the seasonal (summer) mean daily maximum temperature metric and buffer width. Shade was correlated with temperature response within several studies, but direct comparisons of treatment effectiveness among studies as a function of shade was confounded by different measurement methods. The evidence also indicated that variation in temperature response among studies may be associated with multiple factors (geology, hydrology, topography, latitude, and stream azimuth) that influence thermal sensitivity of streams to shade loss. For amphibians, we found mixed evidence for relationships between population responses and buffers maintained along streams after forest harvest. Specifically, we did not find evidence to support the contention that positive population responses are associated consistently with larger buffers. Also, considerable uncertainty exists about which environmental covariates reliably explain variation in amphibian population responses. Collectively, our results indicate that evidence is weak to address questions most relevant to policy discussions concerning effectiveness of alternative riparian management schemes. Future studies should test effectiveness of alternative treatments with either experimental or purposefully structured observational studies to develop tools and derive guidelines for how to achieve management goals based on site and landscape characteristics.
Stream temperature responses to experimental riparian canopy gaps along forested headwaters in western Oregon
2020, Forest Ecology and Management
Citation Excerpt :
Further, to visualize and quantify gap effects over the full 40-day survey period on daily temperature metrics, we used a regression approach to compare the relationships between reaches during each summer period to evaluate the difference in warming within the reference and treatment reaches between years. This approach treats the reference reach as the independent variable and the treatment reach as the dependent variable and has been used in multiple other temperature assessment studies to capture processes occurring over a summer season, rather than compressing data to a single value (Groom et al. 2011a, Kibler et al. 2013, Bladon et al. 2016). In each period – pre- and post-treatment – the regressions evaluated the relationship between daily temperature (maximum and mean) at the downstream end (meter 90) of the reference reach and the downstream end of the treatment reach.
Streamside (riparian) areas in the western United States and across much of North America are dominated by young, regenerating forests with closed canopies, which shade the understory and reduce light to streams. The addition of canopy gaps has been suggested as a management tool to accelerate development of riparian forest complexity, create stream light conditions that mimic those in late successional forests, and enhance in-stream productivity. Although gaps form naturally in late-successional forests, explicitly adding gaps is a concern because the increases in light that accompany a canopy gap may have the potential to increases stream temperature, which is an important ecological driver and regulatory metric in streams. The goal of this study was to determine whether and to what degree riparian forest canopy gaps that reflect localized disturbance events (mortality of one to a few dominant canopy trees) affect stream temperatures. We created experimental gaps in young regenerating riparian forests along six replicate headwater streams in western Oregon. Gaps increased light along 90 m study reaches by 3.91 (±1.63) moles of photons m⁻² day⁻¹, similar to that of a naturally occurring gap in a late-successional forest. Using a Before-After-Control-Impact study design, we assessed stream temperature by tracking multiple responses in each reach including: maximum seven day moving average of daily maximums (T_7DayMax), maximum seven day moving average of daily means (T_7DayMean), daily maximum, and mean summer temperatures, as well as within-reach (every 30 m) responses, and downstream recovery. Over a 40-day period in summer (July 22nd - August 30th), the mean response in T_7DayMax across the six replicate streams was 0.21 °C ± 0.12, and the mean response in T_7DayMean was 0.15 °C ± 0.14. Although the mean response in T_7DayMax (a key regulatory metric) was small, changes varied across individual study streams, and the magnitude of the relative increase in stream T_7DayMax as a result of the canopy gap was strongly negatively correlated with stream size. T_7DayMax was not correlated with the size of the canopy opening or change in reach-scale light availability (within the range of gap sizes from 514 m² to 1,374 m² (0.05 to 0.14 ha)). Overall, riparian forest canopy gaps have the potential to increase stream temperatures, but in the western Cascade Mountain headwaters studied here, gap effects were small (all < 0.5 °C), and temperature responses declined as stream size increased.
A novel approach for examining downstream thermal responses of streams to contemporary forestry
2019, Science of the Total Environment
Citation Excerpt :
Timber harvest of riparian areas is known to affect adjacent stream temperature (see reviews by Moore et al., 2005 and Webb et al., 2008). Indeed, most of the literature has been focused on understanding stream temperature responses immediately below timber harvest units (e.g., Beschta and Taylor, 1988; Johnson and Jones, 2000; Groom et al., 2011a; Kibler et al., 2013). There has been less attention, however, related to what occurs further downstream of harvest (Moore et al., 2005).
Temperature is a fundamental driver of aquatic environments. Changes in thermal regimes due to timber harvest may be detrimental for cold-water instream biota. Although it is understood that stream temperature may increase immediately below timber harvest operations, the understanding of how thermal responses propagate downstream is less clear. Here, we examine the effects of timber harvest on stream temperature pre- (2–3 years) and post-harvest (5 years) at 16 sites (average annual streamflow rates <0.283 m³ s⁻¹) located in the Coast Range, Oregon, USA. At each site, an array of temperature sensors were deployed on the extremes of three consecutive reaches: an upstream unharvested reference reach, a treatment reach, and a downstream unharvested reach. We used several metrics to describe and evaluate changes over time and space focusing on the responses of downstream reaches. Primarily, we evaluated the differences over time in daily maximum temperature between the two sensors located at the downstream unharvested reach. Furthermore, using a statistical ordination technique, we examined the spatial and temporal variability of an array of sensors for daily maximum temperature. Moreover, we assessed distributional shifts (statistical moments) of hourly temperature differences between the two sensors at the downstream unharvested reach over time. Lastly, we used a combination of statistical moments and the ordination technique to provide an index that describes the behavior of site-specific thermal disturbance over time. We found that stream reaches responded differently to upstream timber harvest operations between pre and post-harvest summer seasons. In addition, we showed distinct patterns of longitudinal variability of temperature across sites and summer seasons with increases, decreases or mixed responses including no change downstream. Overall, the net change of daily maximum temperature at the downstream reach revealed that the highest difference occurred during the first and second year post-harvest and, in some cases, a distinctive shift in stream warming and cooling occurred between the day and the night. Observed temperature patterns in downstream reaches were most similar to the pre-harvest conditions at the fifth year post-harvest. Collectively, we offer a novel approach for assessing stream temperature regime change using multiple metrics that can improve our understanding of thermal effects downstream of timber harvest, taking in consideration idiosyncratic responses across sites and time.
Stream temperature under contrasting riparian forest cover: Understanding thermal dynamics and heat exchange processes
2018, Science of the Total Environment
Climate change is likely to increase summer temperatures in many river environments, raising concerns that this will reduce their thermal suitability for a range of freshwater fish species. As a result, river managers have pursued riparian tree planting due to its ability to moderate stream temperatures by providing shading. However, little is known about the relative ability of different riparian forest types to moderate stream temperatures. Further research is therefore necessary to inform best-practise riparian tree planting strategies. This article contrasts stream temperature and energy fluxes under three riparian vegetation types common to Europe: open grassland terrain (OS), semi-natural deciduous woodland (SNS), and commercial conifer plantation (CS). Data was recorded over the course of a year by weather stations installed in each of the vegetation types. Mean daily stream temperature was generally warmest at OS and coolest at CS. Energy gains at all sites were dominated by shortwave radiation, whereas losses where principally due to longwave and latent heat flux. The magnitude of shortwave radiation received at the water surface was strongly dependent upon vegetation type, with OS and SNS woodland sites receiving approximately 6 × and 4 × (respectively) the incoming solar radiation of CS. Although CS lost less energy through longwave or latent fluxes than the other sites, net surface heat flux was ordered OS > SNS > CS, mirroring the stream temperature results. These findings demonstrate that energy fluxes at the air-water interface vary substantially between different riparian forest types and that stream temperature response to bankside vegetation depends upon the type of vegetation present. These results present new insights into the conditions under which riparian vegetation shading is optimal for the reduction of surface heat fluxes and have important implications for the development of ‘best-practice’ tree planting strategies to moderate summer temperature extremes in rivers.

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Effect of contemporary forest harvesting practices on headwater stream temperatures: Initial response of the Hinkle Creek catchment, Pacific Northwest, USA

Highlights

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Study design and location

Stream temperature

Change observed in individual streams

Conclusions

For. Ecol. Manage.

For. Ecol. Manage.

J. Hydrol.

Stream temperature increases and land use in a forested Oregon watershed

Water Resour. Bull.

Temperature tolerance in young Pacific salmon, Genus Oncorhynchus

J. Fish. Res. Board Can.

Energetic responses of salmon to temperature. A study of some thermal responses in the physiology and freshwater ecology of Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka)

Am. Zool.

Growth rate and body composition of fingerling Sockeye Salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka, in relation to temperature and ration size

J. Fish. Res. Board Can.

Predicting temperatures of small streams

Water Resour. Res.

Effects of clear-cutting on stream temperature

Water Resour. Res.

Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods

The effect of strip-cutting on stream temperatures in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest

New Hampshire. Biosci.

Headwater stream temperature response to clear-cut harvesting with different riparian treatments, coastal British Columbia, Canada

Water Resour. Res.

Response of stream invertebrates to a global warming thermal regime: An ecosystem-level manipulation

Ecology

Timber harvest impacts on small headwater stream channels in the Coast Ranges of Washington

J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc.