Vigilance in white-faced capuchins, Cebus capucinus, in Costa Rica

doi:10.1016/0003-3472(95)80154-5

Animal Behaviour

Volume 49, Issue 1, January 1995, Pages 63-70

https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-3472(95)80154-5 Get rights and content

Abstract

Vigilance behaviour was examined in four groups of white-faced capuchins in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica. In each group, males spent more time vigilant than females. Average time spent vigilant within each group was not significantly correlated with group size, but was negatively correlated with the number of male group members. The alpha male tended to be the most vigilant individual in each group. Males in two of the four groups were more vigilant at waterholes than in other areas; males in two of the three groups having overlapping ranges were more vigilant in areas of overlap. There was a positive correlation between absence of neighbours and level of vigilance in both sexes. Male vigilance appeared to be directed primarily towards males in other groups, rather than towards potential predators or other group members.

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Understanding variation in social grouping patterns among animal taxa is an enduring goal of ethologists, who seek to evaluate the selective pressures shaping the evolution of sociality. Cohesive association with conspecifics increases intragroup feeding competition and may impose constraints on group size. Furthermore, in sexually dimorphic species, males and females may have different nutritional requirements, which can lead to suboptimal foraging in mixed-sex groups. How do animals living in permanent social groups mitigate these foraging costs? Niche differentiation is often hypothesized as a mechanism, but rigorous and detailed tests of the extent and context of differences in diet and habitat use, key tenets of this hypothesis, are rare. We investigated the potential for niche differentiation in foraging activity budget and environment use in a population of wild white-faced capuchin monkeys, Cebus imitator, in northwestern Costa Rica. Using a robust data set of 15 879 foraging scan samples collected from four groups over 13 months, we found that smaller individuals – e.g. juveniles and females – forage more often on smaller branches. We additionally found clear evidence of predator-sensitive foraging wherein the smallest individuals spent less time on the ground during invertebrate foraging. Importantly, niche differentiation was far more evident overall during invertebrate foraging, likely due to spatial constraints and environmental homogeneity imposed by fruit patches. In summary, we found considerable variation in habitat use across age and sex classes, likely attributable to differences in size and relative predation risk. These variables likely reduce intraspecific feeding competition by promoting differential diet and habitat use. Our results also provide insight into the limits of niche differentiation as a strategy for competition reduction and may shed light on the evolution of fission–fusion dynamics in highly frugivorous species.
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Vigilance is important for survivorship and reproductive success and is common and conspicuous within hundreds of species across a diverse array of taxa. Vigilance can involve either scanning for predators (antipredator vigilance) or watching conspecifics (social vigilance). From observations of marked Gunnison's prairie dogs, Cynomys gunnisoni (Sciuridae), living under natural conditions at Valles Caldera National Preserve, New Mexico, U.S.A., we compared results from the two most common sampling methods used by behavioural ecologists to measure vigilance: focal sampling (i.e. observing an individual for a specific amount of time and recording the amount of time spent vigilant) and scan sampling (i.e. observing all individuals in an area at a single moment and recording whether each individual at that moment is vigilant or nonvigilant). Information from different individuals and from the same individuals over time both revealed that estimates of vigilance from scan sampling were consistently and significantly higher than estimates from focal sampling. These differences probably resulted because nonvigilant behaviours were more difficult to detect in scan samples than in focal samples. Our results have important implications for behavioural ecologists who want to make intraspecific or interspecific comparisons of vigilance.
Drivers of home range characteristics across spatiotemporal scales in a Neotropical primate, Cebus capucinus
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Citation Excerpt :
Thus, all animals of a given social group share a home range, and accordingly, we treat the social group as the unit of analysis in our study. The home ranges of neighbouring white-faced capuchin groups overlap extensively (Crofoot, 2007; Rose & Fedigan, 1995), with up to 60% dyadic overlap among our study groups (Campos & Fedigan, 2011). Intergroup relationships may be best characterized as ‘xenophobic’ rather than territorial, in that groups do not defend well-defined spaces, but their interactions are usually highly agonistic (Crofoot et al., 2008).
The factors that drive within-species variation in animal space use remain poorly understood. A growing body of evidence suggests that both home range attributes and biological interpretations of the home range may depend fundamentally on the scale of analysis. We utilize a multiscale mixed effects modelling framework to examine how seasonal fluctuations in climate, food resource abundance and group mass affect variance in home range area and the maturity stage of forest used by a group-living Neotropical primate, the white-faced capuchin, Cebus capucinus. Using an 8-year data set representing over 20 000 contact hours, we estimated home ranges for seven social groups at four nested temporal scales and three nested spatial scales using a movement-based kernel method. Group mass was consistently the most important predictor of home range size in our models, and its effects were relatively insensitive to spatial or temporal scale. Mean daily maximum temperature was an influential factor in shaping monthly range area and composition, with hotter weather favouring smaller home range size and increased use of mature evergreen forest. Greater fruit availability was also associated with smaller monthly range area. The effects of temperature and fruit availability were both scale dependent: the impact of both variables was greatest on the core zone. The different study groups showed marked variation in the habitat composition of their home ranges, but in all groups, higher-use zones consisted of older, more evergreen forest. Our study illustrates the complex ecological processes that affect movement behaviour in a Neotropical primate across a range of spatial and temporal scales, highlighting the importance of group mass, climatic seasonality, landscape heterogeneity and dietary shifts in shaping the home range.
Antipredator and social monitoring functions of vigilance behaviour in blue monkeys
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Citation Excerpt :
We also found that vigilance increased in areas of lower foliage density, but this effect does not strongly support any particular function of vigilance. While increased vigilance in areas of low foliage density may be related to exposure to predators (Cords 1990, 1995; Rose & Fedigan 1995; Cowlishaw 1998; Tchabovsky et al. 2001), individuals may simply be more observant where they can better see what is around them, which would apply to conspecific monitoring as well as antipredator vigilance (Caro 2005). Subjects increased vigilance in conditions of higher perceived predation risk, such as in the 10 min following antipredator events (see also Baldellou & Henzi 1992; Hirsch 2002; Di Blanco & Hirsch 2006).
Vigilance behaviour is often viewed as a predation avoidance strategy, but animals also use visual monitoring to detect conspecific threats. Studies of social vigilance often consider how group size or nearby conspecifics influence vigilance levels. Less is known about how more specific social variables, such as relative rank and kinship of a subject’s neighbours, affect vigilance of wild animals along with predation risk. To evaluate alternative functional hypotheses for vigilance behaviour, including predator detection and both extra- and within-group conspecific monitoring, we investigated how predation risk and social factors account for variation in vigilance in wild blue monkeys, Cercopithecus mitis, which show strong aggressive competition between groups and mild aggression within them. Studying 18 adult females in two groups, we measured time spent vigilant in 90 s focal samples, recording the subject's activity, microhabitat conditions and identity of neighbours. We used data on dominance ranks and kinship to assess subject-specific social context for each sample. We compared generalized linear mixed models corresponding to each hypothesized function of vigilance, relating variation in vigilance to factors associated with a particular function. The best model related vigilance to predictor variables of all three functions, including recency of an antipredator event, height in canopy, position in forest (edge/interior), recency of an intergroup encounter, number of nearby kin, subject rank and presence of high-ranking neighbours. Overall, most variation in vigilance related to predation risk and between-group competition, while within-group social factors had smaller effects. The range of predictors suggests that vigilance behaviour serves multiple functions, including predator detection and both extragroup and intragroup conspecific monitoring. Species with different social systems might be expected to show different balances of factors that influence vigilance behaviour.
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When two social groups of the same species confront each other, what factors influence whether individuals participate in the struggle for defence of their group and its resources? In white-faced capuchin monkeys, Cebus capucinus, adult males play an important role in the outcome of intergroup encounters by cooperating aggressively against their opponents. However, not all male capuchin monkeys consistently participate in intergroup aggression. Our study therefore aimed to determine which elements influence the participation of males in a dispute. Playback experiments simulating intergroup encounters, which tested adult males in various social contexts, highlight the importance of the presence of another individual. Male white-faced capuchins, C. capucinus, participated in intergroup encounters more frequently when tested in the presence of another adult male than when tested alone. Male subjects were more likely to respond aggressively to the playback stimulus if the other individual present also responded aggressively. However, the number of males residing in the subject’s group, relative to the number of males in the group from which the playback stimulus was recorded, did not seem to affect a male’s response.
The Behavior of Wild White-Faced Capuchins. Demography, Life History, Social Relationships, and Communication.
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Citation Excerpt :
Males are somewhat better than females in detecting predators (Rose, 1994) and also take an active role in mobbing them (Perry and Manson, 2008; Rose, 1994). Adult males, and alpha males in particular, exhibit higher levels of vigilance than females do (Rose and Fedigan, 1995). However, the most important role that males play is probably defense against extragroup males.
Cebus capucinus has converged with Old World monkeys by having strong, long-term social bonds among related females that are characterized by linear dominance hierarchies, frequent grooming, and coalition formation, biased toward maternal kin. Males also maintain long-term relationships with kin, by comigrating with close male relatives. Males need male allies to take over groups with mature females. The alpha male sires virtually all offspring born to females who are not his direct descendants. Thus, the males who assist the alpha male in gaining and preserving access to breeding females typically must delay breeding until the alpha male's daughters have matured. Infanticide by alpha males is the primary cause of infant death. Females support the current alpha male, thereby preventing disruptive takeovers that could result in infanticide. Some alpha males maintain their position for up to 18 years. Under such conditions, survival rates and the average degree of relatedness within a group are high. High male reproductive skew, frequent coalitionary lethal aggression, and infanticide put selective pressures on both males and females to engage in coalition formation. The rich repertoire of stereotyped recruitment signals suggests a long evolutionary history of coalition formation. The unusual diversity of traditional dyadic social conventions in this species may also be a consequence of selection for ability to test the quality of social bonds.

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Vigilance in white-faced capuchins, Cebus capucinus, in Costa Rica

Abstract

Anim. Behav.

Anim. Behav.

Anim. Behav.

Anim. Behav.

Anim. Behav.

J. theor. Biol.

Anim. Behav.

Anim. Behav.

Anim. Behav.

Anim. Behav.

Anim. Behav.

An analysis of vigilance in the Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica)

Z. Tierpsychol.

The evolution of social behavior

A. Rev. Ecol. Syst.

Observational study of behaviour: sampling methods

Behaviour

Sex differences in the foraging behavior of squirrel monkeys in a seasonal habitat

Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol.

Time budgeting and group size: a test of theory

Ecology

Boa constrictor predation and group response in white-faced cebus monkeys

Biotropica

Selective forces affecting the predator alarm calls of vervet monkeys

Behaviour

Vigilance and mixed-species association of some East African forest monkeys

Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol.

The problem of vigilance in animal life

Brain Behav. Evol.

Predator vigilance and group size in mammals and birds: a critical review of the empirical evidence

Biol. Rev.

Vertebrate predation in Cebus capucinus: meat eating in a Neotropical monkey

Folia primatol.

Sex differences and intersexual relations in adult white-faced capuchins, Cebus capucinus

Int. J. Primatol.

A census of Alouatta palliata and Cebus capucinus in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica

Brenesia

Time budgets and foraging behaviour in wedge-capped capuchins (Cebus olivaceus): age and sex differences

Age and sex differences in the organization of behaviour in wedge-capped capuchins (Cebus olivaceus)

Behav. Ecol.

Cebus capucinus (Mono cara blanca, white-faced capuchin)

Seasonal variations of diet related to species and sex in a community of Cercopithecus monkeys

J. Anim. Ecol.

Field methods for capture and measurement of three monkey species in Costa Rica

Folia primatol.