Technical viability of mobile solar photovoltaic systems for indigenous nomadic communities in northern latitudes
Graphical abstract
Introduction
Solar photovoltaic (PV) technology has proven to be a reliable, sustainable [1] and economic source of power for isolated communities throughout the world. PV is used in diverse applications including: detached residence [2], [3] or whole villages [4], [5], educational centers [5], water pumps [6], and medical centers [5], [7]. Small load systems range from 1.3 kWh/day/family for domestic needs to of about 23.1 kWh/day for medical centers, and are usually designed to run small electronic appliances. However in more energy-intensive applications, PV is coupled to a fuel-fed generator and/or with wind turbine in order to form a reliable hybrid electrical system [4], [5], [7].
The PV system properties of modularity [8], inherently stand alone [8], [9], no fuel costs, very small operational cost requirements [8], [10] and long lifetime [8], [11] make distributed solar energy systems appropriate technologies [12] for dispersed isolated rural communities. However, the vast majority of such systems have generally been located and studied in the south – under moderate to warm environments with relatively constant levels of solar flux (e.g. from 4.6 to 5.6 kWh/m2/day [2], or from 4.8 to 6.1 kWh/m2/day [4]). Similar systems have been gradually introduced into some northern countries to power small navigational stations, radio repeaters, or lighthouses, residences, fish farms, water pumps with peak loads varying from 0.4 to 1.2 kW [13]. Even the Antarctic uses PV to power light bulbs, laptops and other electric appliances in research centers during summer time [14], [15], [16]. However in higher latitudes (above 45 °N) such installations usually perform either on seasonal or on a hybrid basis (i.e. with a backup power source such as a generator).
In the far northern hemisphere the indigenous people live nomadic lifestyles on the taiga (or tundra) as part of reindeer herding societies and require electric power for electric lights, telecommunications equipment and other electric appliances. These nomadic indigenous societies rely on reindeer for meat, milk and hides as well as for transportation. Thus, herders prioritize the care and well-being of their animals, which necessitates taking herds to extremely remote winter pastures rich of lichens that feature high glucose content vital to survive severe winter season, and then in the summer time to pastures where the diversity of grass and shrubs compensates for the shortage of protein and minerals [17]. This natural reindeer dependence on types of forage forces herders to relocate their livestock, along with human dwellings, twice per year to a distance of up to 200 km [18].
To provide comfort and security, herdsmen use nomadic camps, using a tent that in winter can be covered by hides and heated by firewood. A relatively low electric power demand still requires the delivery of generators and fuel into the taiga, which can be challenging under extreme natural conditions that creates exorbitant fuel costs [13]. In addition, the negative environmental, health and social impacts of the use of fossil fuels in the north are well known to the community members and northern governments [19], [20]. Therefore, these communities are interested in alternative sources of electrical energy.
The severe environment of the far north makes providing renewable energy a challenge to meet nomadic electric needs. Biomass-based renewables do not provide self-sufficiency of energy supply chain in nomadic camps, and hydro power is only be available for stationary sites. Wind power could be more promising in this respect, however, even small wind turbines require specially trained staff for service [21]. Furthermore, comparatively low turbine operational and maintenance costs do not include serving of the most expensive turbine components, such as gearbox and blades [22] whose failure due to an ice-formation may become an issue under extreme northern conditions [23]. The other attributes of icing related to decrease of power delivered by the turbine [23], [24] and probable damage to surrounding goods due to ice take off from the blades [23], do not contribute to the viability of wind power for northern nomadic camps.
Photovoltaic (PV) systems appear to be the most technologically competitive, but also beneficial for the unique herder lifestyle, including the traditional workmanship. To investigate this resource this study utilizes the Hybrid Optimization Model for Multiple Energy Resources (HOMER) to probe the potential feasibility of PV for nomadic camps. First, background is provided for reindeer herder communities, based on two cases (one of the most southern in Russia, 56°41′N, and northernmost, 68°51′N, in Norway). Then, based on information obtained from herdsmen representatives, the electric needs of reindeer herders' nomadic camps are quantified and load profiles are modeled for technical and economic performance. Sensitivity analysis is performed for different scenarios with regard to the economic variables in Russia and Norway (e.g. fuel prices, interest rate), market analysis on the system components, technological behavior over the lifetime, portability of the system, and the effect of albedo in northern latitudes.
Section snippets
Background
Northern groups of indigenous people involved largely in reindeer husbandry, as well as in hunting and fishing account for more than 180,000 people (Table 1) and are spread out over a vast geographic region (Fig. 1). The most numerous society of indigenous people potentially involved in reindeer herding of over 120,000 is concentrated in Russia; however, there are also other people who may partially be active in reindeer husbandry, such as Komi, Tuvan, and Yakuts, rural population of which
Methods
The PV systems were modeled with HOMER (v2.68 beta) following stages outlined in Fig. 2.
The two case study locations evaluated are 1) the southern area of Yakutia, Russia (56°41′N; 120°46′E) – the Russian case and 2) one of the northernmost regions in Norway (Finnmark, 68°51′N; 24°43′E as the winter pastures and 70°03′N; 23°27′E as the summer pastures) – the Norwegian case (Fig. 3, Fig. 4). The Norwegian case is in the Arctic Circle and the Russian case is located at higher altitudes of 1009 m
Results and discussion
There are several issues that must be analyzed for systems modeled here: (i) the remote PV system competitiveness with conventional energy supply scheme in northern latitudes, (ii) significant fluctuation of solar radiation over a year affecting the system size, (iii) predictable decrease of power output during the system lifetime that can force the camp to increase PV or battery bank capacity in 10–20 years, (iv) the role of albedo effect on power output, (v) PV system economic performance
Conclusions
This paper investigated the technical viability of using photovoltaic systems for nomadic camps of reindeer herders in remote in taiga or tundra under extreme northern conditions. The results on case studies in Russia and Norway showed that under current conditions, PV systems are economically beneficial and can offset fuel use. The results also showed that all incandescent lamps should be replaced by LEDs in such camps to improve portability of the PV systems as well as the economics.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank communities' representatives of the Ust-Nukzha village, Russia, including reindeer herders Vladimir A. Nickolaev and Galina S. Nickolaeva for their helpful explanations on reindeer husbandry details, and Nikolai I. Kascheev for the provision of financial data.
This publication is based on work conducted within the MSc programme SELECT, Environomical Pathways for Sustainable Energy Systems, which is a joint Master's programme offered by a consortium of universities
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