Impact of operating wood-burning fireplace ovens on indoor air quality
Graphical abstract
Introduction
Wood-burning fireplaces have regained popularity in homes over the past years. These ovens create a cozy, warm ambience while offering an attractive lower cost, ecological alternative to other forms of heating. In times of increasing energy prices, wood-burning ovens can be competitive on running costs and conserve resources when compared to fossil fuels. Combustion of wood as a renewable resource is also close to climate-neutral in terms of carbon dioxide (CO2), since in the ideal case only the CO2 which was drawn in during the tree’s growth and stored in the wood is released into the atmosphere again.
It is, however, natural that combustion takes place more or less incompletely and causes undesirable by-products to form. The more complex the combustion material is, the more difficult the reaction process is. Natural gas can relatively easily be burned to produce carbon dioxide and water, but burning oil and coal in an environmentally friendly manner requires much more effort (Lackner et al., 2013). Wood and other kinds of biomass are among the oldest combustion materials but are also some of the most problematic. From a chemical standpoint, wood is a polymer of celluloses, polyoses and lignin with proportions of other minerals and extracts depending on the wood species (Fengel and Wegener, 1989). The heat energy from firewood (beech, oak, birch) is around 17–19 MJ kg−1. Depending on how the oven is operated, set up and maintained, and the firewood itself, a wide range of other combustion products are released besides carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide (McDonald et al., 2000, Schauer et al., 2001, Hedberg et al., 2002, Shen and Gu, 2009). These particularly include the usual combustion products of the cellulose (Shen and Gu, 2009), aldehyde (Cerqueira et al., 2013) and particulate matter (Hedberg et al., 2002, Tissari et al., 2008). At high burn-off temperatures (<1200 °C), which however rarely occur in wood combustion, NOx can form from atmospheric nitrogen. Low temperatures (<500 °C), in contrast, lead to de novo synthesis of aromatic compounds (Choudry and Hutzinger, 1983) and the formation of poly chlorinated dioxins/furans when chlorine is present (Salthammer et al., 1995).
It has generally always been the case that fire sources in rooms cause an elevated level of indoor air pollution. Moreover, a heat source might influence the air movement in a room (Ardkapan et al., 2014). Reports in the past have looked closely at the effects of sources such as gas burners (Wallace et al., 2008, Wallace and Ott, 2011), candles (Glytsos et al., 2010), incense sticks (Wang et al., 2007), kerosene ovens (Carteret et al., 2012), pizza ovens (Buonanno et al., 2010) and especially open fireplaces in homes (Lahiri and Ray, 2010). Publications were made 30 years ago concerning the influence of wood combustion on indoor air quality (Sexton et al., 1984). In more recent times, Noonan and colleagues have paid particular attention to the formation of PM2.5 in indoor air when operating wood-burning fireplace ovens (Ward and Noonan, 2008, Noonan et al., 2012, McNamara et al., 2013). Carvalho et al. (2013) have studied the formation of ultrafine particles from wood-burning stoves.
With fine and ultra-fine particulate matter being increasingly in the focus of public discussion recently, the German Federal Environment Agency published a guidance value for evaluating fine particulate matter (PM2.5 fraction) in indoor air of 25 μg m−3 (Salthammer, 2011). This directly concerns wood-burning fireplace ovens as potential sources of particles (Jalava et al., 2010). Consequently, WKI carried out a study with a total of seven test series in living rooms with wood-burning fireplace ovens. The results are presented in this paper and discussed with regard to current indoor air hygiene criteria. Another paper reports the effects of ethanol fireplaces on indoor air quality (Schripp et al., 2013).
Section snippets
Selection of fireplaces
The effects of wood-burning fireplace ovens on indoor air quality were investigated on-site in private homes with such an oven. Seven households in detached houses in the greater Braunschweig area were involved in the investigations. Braunschweig is located in the south east part of Lower Saxony (52°23′N, 10°56′E). Table 1 shows details of the rooms and ovens examined. The air intake was from the air in the room in each case except for oven 3, which had an intake from the outdoor air. The
Results and discussion
Wood-burning fireplace ovens are generally designed such that the fire chamber is sealed off from the room air. The combustion products which regulation-compliant ovens generate should be completely led outside via a flue so that no emissions escape into the room. German laws on emissions set limits on gaseous and particulate combustion products which are led away into the outside air. Potential emissions into the indoor air are not considered.
Situations can, however, also occur during proper
Conclusion
This study looked into the question of whether the use of wood-burning ovens can have a negative effect on the indoor air quality. A total of seven living rooms were assessed to answer this question. All the ovens were of modern design and were operated with untreated, mature wood (oak, ash, beech, birch). No leaks were detected when the fire chamber doors were closed.
Under normal living and operating conditions, the influences of the emissions from the combustion processes were clearly
Acknowledgement
The authors thank the IKEA Stiftung (Germany) for financial support.
References (34)
- et al.
Studying passive ultrafine particle dispersion in a room with a heat source
Build. Environ.
(2014) - et al.
Exposure to particle number, surface area and PM concentrations in pizzerias
Atmos. Environ.
(2010) - et al.
Wood-burning stoves in low-carbon dwellings
Energy Build.
(2013) - et al.
Formaldehyde and acetaldehyde emissions from residential wood combustion in Portugal
Atmos. Environ.
(2013) - et al.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons inside and outside of apartments in an urban area
Sci. Total Environ.
(2004) - et al.
Characterization of particulate matter concentrations during controlled indoor activities
Atmos. Environ.
(2010) - et al.
Chemical and physical characterization of emissions from birch wood combustion in a wood stove
Atmos. Environ.
(2002) - et al.
Effect of combustion condition on cytotoxic and inflammatory activity of residential wood combustion particles
Atmos. Environ.
(2010) - et al.
Contribution of wood combustion to PAH and PCDD/F concentrations in two urban sites in Northern Italy
J. Aerosol Sci.
(2013) Critical evaluation of approaches in setting indoor air quality guidelines and reference values
Chemosphere
(2011)