Elsevier

Biosystems

Volume 17, Issue 2, 1984, Pages 87-126
Biosystems

The kingdom PROTISTA and its 45 phyla,☆☆

https://doi.org/10.1016/0303-2647(84)90003-0Get rights and content

Abstract

Because most recent treatments of the protists (‘lower’ eukaryotes comprising the kingdom PROTISTA Haeckel, 1866) have been preoccupied with either a ‘phylogenetic-tree’ approach or a discussion of the impact of possible endosymbiotic origins of major intracellular organelles, the overall systematics of the group, from taxonomic and nomenclatural points of view, has been almost totally neglected. As a result, confusion over contained phyla, their places in a classification scheme, and even their names (and authorships) is growing; the situation could become chaotic. The principal objective of the present paper is to recognize the taxonomic interrelationships among all protist groups; and it includes the specific proposal that some 45 phyla, defined and characterized, be assigned to 18 supraphyletic assemblages within the kingdom PROTISTA (itself redefined and contrasted with the other eukaryotic kingdoms recognized here: ANIMALIA, PLANTAE and FUNGI). Vernacular terms are employed for identification of the 18 assemblages, but defensible formal names are proposed at the level of phylum. None is presented as new: authorship-and-date credits are given to preceding workers on the taxonomy of the many groups involved. By presenting taxonomic characterizations as well as relevant nomenclatural data for each taxon described, a comprehensive scheme of overall higher-level classification within the kingdom emerges that may be considered to serve as a solid base or ‘taking-off point’ for future discussions.

The 18 supraphyletic groups and their phyla (in parentheses and including authorships and dates of their formal names) are as follows: I. The rhizopods (phyla Karyoblastea Margulis, 1974; Amoebozoa Lühe, 1913; Acrasia Van Tieghem, 1880; Eumycetozoa Zopf, 1885; Plasmodiophorea Zopf, 1885; Granuloreticulosa De Saedeleer, 1934; incertae sedisXenophyophora Schulze, 1904). II. The mastigomycetes (Hypochytridiomycota Sparrow, 1959; Oomycota Winter, 1897; incert. sed.Chytridiomycota Sparrow, 1959). III. The chlorobionts (Chlorophyta Pascher, 1914; Prasinophyta Christensen, 1962; Conjugatophyta Engler, 1892; Charophyta Rabenhorst, 1863; incert. sed.Glaucophyta Bohlin, 1901). IV. The euglenozoa (Euglenophyta Pascher, 1931; Kinetoplastidea Honigberg, 1963; incert. sed.Pseudociliata Corliss & Lipscomb, 1982). V. The rhodophytes (Rhodophyta Rabenhorst, 1863). VI. The cryptomonads (Cryptophyta Pascher, 1914). VII. The choanoflagellates (Choanoflagellata Kent, 1880). VIII. The chromobionts (Chrysophyta Pascher, 1914; Haptophyta Christensen, 1962; Bacillariophyta Engler & Gild, 1924; Xanthophyta Allorge in Fritsch, 1935; Eustigmatophyta Hibberd & Leedale, 1970; Phaeophyta Kjellman, 1891; incert. sed.Proteromonadea Grassé in Grassé, 1952). IX. The labyrinthomorphs (Labyrinthulea Cienkowski, 1867; Thraustochytriacea Sparrow, 1943 [possibly infraphyletic rank?]). X The polymastigotes (Metamonadea Grassé in Grassé, 1952; Parabasalia Honigberg, 1973). XI. The paraflagellates (Opalinata Wenyon, 1926). XII. The actinopods (Heliozoa Haeckel, 1866; Taxopoda Fol, 1883; Acantharia Haeckel, 1879; Polycystina Ehrenberg, 1839; Phaeodaria Haeckel, 1879). XIII. The dinoflagellates (Peridinea Ehrenberg, 1830; Syndinea Chatton, 1920). XIV. The ciliates (Ciliophora Doflein, 1901). XV. The sporozoa (Sporozoa Leuckart, 1879). XVI. The microsporidia (Microsporidia Balbiani, 1882). XVII. The haplosporidia (Haplosporidia Caullery & Mesnil, 1899). XVIII. The myxosporidia (Myxosporidia Bütschli, 1881; incert. sed.Actinomyxidea Štolc, 1899 [perhaps not separate phylum?]).

References (276)

  • C.J. Alexopoulos et al.

    Introductory Mycology

  • O.R. Anderson

    Radiolaria

  • K.J. Aufderheide et al.

    Formation and positioning of surface-related structures in protozoa

    Microbiol. Rev.

    (1980)
  • S.S. Bamforth

    Protist biogeography

    J. Protozool.

    (1981)
  • C.F. Bardele

    Cell cycle, morphogenesis, and ultrastructure in the pseudoheliozoan Clathrulina elegans

    Z. Zellforsch.

    (1972)
  • C.F. Bardele

    The fine structure of the centrohelidian heliozoan Heterophrys marina

    Cell Tissue Res.

    (1975)
  • C.F. Bardele

    Comparative study of axopodial microtubule patterns and possible mechanisms of pattern control in the centrohelidian Heliozoa, Acanthocystis, Raphidiophrys and Heterophrys

    J. Cell Sci.

    (1977)
  • C.F. Bardele

    Comparative freeze-fracture study of the ciliary membrane of protists and invertebrates in relation to phylogeny

    J. Submicrosc. Cytol.

    (1983)
  • D.J.S. Barr

    An outline for the reclassification of the Chytridiales, and for a new order, the Spizellomycetales

    Can. J. Bot.

    (1980)
  • D.J.S. Barr

    The phylogenetic and taxonomic implications of flagellar rootlet morphology among zoosporic fungi

    BioSystems

    (1981)
  • H.C. Bold et al.

    Introduction to the Algae: Structure and Reproduction

  • T.D. Brock

    Biology of Microorganisms

  • D.J. Brothers

    Nomenclature at the ordinal and higher levels

    Syst. Zool.

    (1983)
  • G. Brugerolle

    Contribution à á l'étude cytologique et phyletique des diplozoaires (Zoomastigophorea, Diplozoa, Dangeard 1910). VI. Caractères généraux des diplozoaires

    Protistologica

    (1975)
  • G. Brugerolle

    Cytologie ultrastructurale, systématique ét evolution des Trichomonadida

    Ann. Stat. Biol. Besse-en-Chandesse, No. 10 (1975–1976)

    (1977)
  • G. Brugerolle et al.

    Etude cytologique ultrastructurale des genres Proteromonas et Karotomorpha (Zoomastigophorea Proteromonadida Grassé 1952)

    Protistologica

    (1976)
  • G. Brogerolle et al.

    Observations sur le cycle l'ultrastructure et la position systématique de Spiromonas perforans (Bodo perforans Hollande 1938), flagellé parasite de Chilomonas paramaecium: ses relations avec les dinoflagellés et sporozoaires

    Protistologica

    (1979)
  • G. Brugerolle et al.

    Taxonomy, cytology and evolution of the Mastigophora

  • K. Buck

    A study of choanoflagellates (Acanthoecidae) from the Weddell Sea, including a description of Diaphanoeca multiannulata n. sp.

    J. Protozool

    (1981)
  • J. Cachon et al.

    Les systémes axopodiaux

    Ann. Biol.

    (1974)
  • J. Cachon et al.

    Sticholonche zanclea Hertwig: a reinterpretation of its phylogenetic position based upon new observations on its ultrastructure

    Arch. Protistenk.

    (1978)
  • M. Cachon et al.

    The Sarcodina

  • T. Cavalier-Smith

    The evolutionary origin and phylogeny of microtubules, mitotic spindles and eukaryote flagella

    BioSystems

    (1978)
  • T. Cavalier-Smith

    The origin and early evolution of the eukaryotic cell

  • T. Cavalier-Smith

    The origin of plastids

    Biol. J. Linn. Soc.

    (1982)
  • M. Chadefaud

    Sur l'origine des plastes “cyanelloides” et la “classe?” des glaucophycées

    C. R. Acad. Sci.

    (1976)
  • V.J. Chapman et al.

    The Algae

  • T. Christensen

    Alger

  • T. Christensen

    Algae, a Taxonomic Survey

  • G.T. Cole

    Contributions of electron microscopy to fungal classification

    Am. Zool.

    (1979)
  • H.F. Copeland

    The kingdoms of organisms

    Quart. Rev. Biol.

    (1938)
  • H.F. Copeland

    The Classification of Lower Organisms

  • J.O. Corliss

    The opalinid infusorians: flagellates or ciliates?

    J. Protozool.

    (1955)
  • J.O. Corliss

    The Ciliated Protozoa: Characterization, Classification, and Guide to the Literature

  • Cited by (161)

    • Light-dependent processes on the cathode enhance the electrical outputs of sediment microbial fuel cells

      2018, Bioelectrochemistry
      Citation Excerpt :

      Approximately 77% of the species are not classified or cultured (Table 3). Although the 18S amplification primers used are primarily for the determination of fungi, the most abundant classified species Centropyxis laevigata (18.46%) belongs to the family of Amoebozoa, ranked as a phylum within either the kingdom Protista [44] or the kingdom Protozoa, living in fresh-water habitats and soil. It has to be mentioned that algae Chlorella as well as some pathogenic to human bacteria (from class Gammaproteobacteria (9.96%) and phylum Firmicutes (1.16%)) can grow inside the cytoplasm of some protists from family Amoebozoa [45,46].

    • Unusually abundant and large ciliate xenomas in oysters, Crassostrea virginica, from Great Bay, New Hampshire, USA

      2016, Journal of Invertebrate Pathology
      Citation Excerpt :

      This study produced significant information about the highly prevalent and unusually large intracellular parasite colonies, or xenomas, in oysters from Great Bay, New Hampshire, USA. Microscopic analyses confirmed the inclusion of the causative organisms in the phylum Ciliophora because they possess a heterokaryotic nuclear condition with both a macronucleus and a micronucleus (Corliss, 1979, 1984; Small and Lynn, 1985; Lynn and Corliss, 1991). Furthermore, early life stages possess cilia that are arranged in a complex infraciliature system, with kineties radiating away from the oral apparatus in a patch on one surface of the organism.

    • Do All Dinoflagellates have an Extranuclear Spindle?

      2015, Protist
      Citation Excerpt :

      The core dinoflagellates are essentially equivalent to the subphylum Dinokaryota Fensome et al. 1993 and consist of a diverse array of photosynthetic and heterotrophic species encompassing free-living and symbiotic life styles. The syndineans, subphylum Syndinea (Corliss 1984) Fensome et al. 1993, are heterotrophic parasites that inhabit cells or body fluids of their hosts (Cachon and Cachon 1987; Coats 1999). Analysis of 18S ribosomal DNA sequences from environmental clone libraries and known parasite genera or species, sort the syndineans into five major lineages basal to the core dinoflagellates; Group I to V of Guillou et al. (2008).

    • Early evolution of eukaryote feeding modes, cell structural diversity, and classification of the protozoan phyla Loukozoa, Sulcozoa, and Choanozoa

      2013, European Journal of Protistology
      Citation Excerpt :

      These are not yet assimilated into broader biology, partly because specialists enthusiastic to portray these remarkable cellular differences can lose sight of the prime requirement of classification as a simplifying device to help our minds grasp biodiversity, and over-split taxa. One early review listed 45 protist phyla (Corliss 1985) and others speak of 70 major distinct cell ‘ultrastructural identities’ in eukaryotes (over 40 in flagellates alone) (Patterson 1999). We are now in a consolidation phase in which such bewildering numbers of separate major groups have been greatly reduced (Cavalier-Smith 2002b, 2004a, 2007b, 2003b), establishing larger phyla comparable to the classical higher phyla like Chordata, Mollusca, Arthropoda, and Tracheophyta in the distinctiveness of their contrasting body plans and general biological significance.

    • Genetic diversity of Labyrinthula terrestris, a newly emergent plant pathogen, and the discovery of new Labyrinthulid organisms

      2009, Mycological Research
      Citation Excerpt :

      These organisms are stramenopiles, not true fungi, but have traditionally been studied by mycologists. They are commonly referred to as the marine net slime molds although they are not related to true slime molds (Corliss 1984; Craven et al. 2005; Muehlstein & Porter 1991; Olsen et al. 2003; Olsen 2007). Labyrinthula spp. form an ectoplasmic network in which the somatic cells move or ‘glide’.

    View all citing articles on Scopus

    This paper is based in part on an invited presentation made at the Fifth Meeting of the International Society for Evolutionary Protistology, which was convened in Banyuls-sur-Mer, France, 6–9 June 1983.

    ☆☆

    Support of National Science Foundation grants DEB 79-23440 and BSR 83-07113 is gratefully acknowledged.

    View full text