Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Structural–geological problems in Gümüşler archeological site and monastery

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Environmental Earth Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

There are many underground settlings opened in historical times in Cappadocia region and the Gümüsler Monastery is one of these. The monastery is a rock monastery church located in approximately 8 km northeast of Nigde. The most important characteristics of the monastery dated in 11th century ac are that it is an important settlement and touristic area that contains the most preserved frescoes in Cappadocia region. For this purpose, were determined the geological features of the observed units in the areas where the monastery is located and the surroundings were determined. Engineering geological problems are mentioned for the negative effects of the discontinuities especially in the monastery part. During field studies, stones with different color and textural characteristics were taken into account and sampling was carried out from four different levels. On representative samples, laboratory studies were conducted for determining the mineralogical, chemical, and petrographic and geomechanical properties. Underground cavities in the region were opened in the lower part of the Kızılkaya ignimbrite which has relatively more rock fragments. Higher amount of rock fragments in the lower part makes this level easier to cave in. Low welding rate of the rock is believed to be the cause of having relatively low values of engineering properties of the lower levels of examined ignimbrites. Ignimbrites in these levels are more sensitive against atmospheric conditions than those in the upper levels. This study is the first study to determine engineering geology problems in the Gümüşler archeological area and provide data to planned conservation measures.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
Fig. 15
Fig. 16
Fig. 17
Fig. 18
Fig. 19
Fig. 20

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Akçay M, Moon CJ, Scott BC (1995) Fluid inclusions and chemistry of tourmalines from the Gümüşler Sb–Hg ± W deposits of the Niğde Massif (Central Turkey). Chem Erde 55:225–236

    Google Scholar 

  • Aydan Ö, Ulusay R (2003) Geotechnical and geoenvironmental characteristics of man-made underground structures in Cappadocia, Turkey. Eng Geol 69:245–272

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aydan Ö, Ulusay R, Kawamoto T, (1997) Assessment of rock mass strength for underground excavations. In: The 36th US rock mechanics symposium, pp 777–786

  • Aydan Ö, Ulusay R, Yüzer E (1999) Man-made structures in Cappadocia, Turkey and their implications in rock mechanics and rock engineering. ISRM News J 6(1):63–73

    Google Scholar 

  • Aydan Ö, Tano H, Ulusay R, Kumsar H, Yenipınar H (2007) An experimental study on the investigation of long-term stability and environmental conditions of Derinkuyu Underground City. In: Proceedings of the symposium on the geology of the Cappadocia region, Niğde, October 2007, pp 35–42 (in Turkish)

  • Aydan Ö, Ulusay R, Tano H, Yüzer E (2008) Studies on Derinkuyu Antique underground city and its implications in geo-engıneering. First collaborative Symposium of Turk-Japan Civil Engineers, 5 June 2008, Istanbul, Turkey, pp 75–91

  • Aydar A, Schmitt AK, Çubukçu HE, Akın L, Ersoy O, Şen E, Duncan RA, Atıcı G (2012) Correlation of ignimbrites in the central Anatolian volcanic province using zircon and plagioclase ages and zircon compositions. J Volcanol Geoth Res 213–214:83–97

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Batum İ (1978) Geology and petrography of the volcanics in Göllüdağ and Acıgöl districts at the southwest of Nevşehir. H U Yerbilimleri 4(1–2):50–69 (in Turkish)

    Google Scholar 

  • Besang C, Eckhardt FJ, Harre W, Kreuzer H, Müller P (1977) Radiometriche Altersbestimmungen an Neogenen Eruptivgesteinen der Türkei. Geol Jb B 25:3–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Charola AE (2000) Salts in the deterioration of porous materials: an overview. J Am Inst Conserv 39:327–343

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Beer JH (1967) Subjective classification of the hardness of rocks and the associated shear strength. In: Proceedings of 4th reg. cong. Afr. soil mechanical found engineering, Capctawn pp 396–398

  • De Witte E, Terfve A, Koestler RJ, Charola AE (1988) Conservation of the Göreme rock: preliminary investigations. In: Proceedings of 6th international congress on deterioration and conservation of stone, Torun, Poland, pp 346–355

  • Deer DU, Miller RP (1966) Engineering classification and index properties for intact rocks. Technical report. Air Force Weapons Lab., New Mexico, No. AFNL-TR, pp 65–116

  • Doyuran V (1976) Ortahisar’ın Çevresel jeolojik sorunları. Turk Jeol Kurumu Bull 19:83–88 (in Turkish)

    Google Scholar 

  • Erdoğan M (1986) Investigation of the tufss in Nevsehir–Urgüp region with regard to material geology. PhD thesis, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey (in Turkish)

  • Erdoğan M (1989) Nevşehir tüflerinin hafif yapı gereci olarak değerlendirilebilme olanaklarının araştırılması. Mühen Jeol Bül 11:75–82 (in Turkish)

    Google Scholar 

  • Ergüler ZA (2009) Field-based experimental determination of the weathering rates of the Cappadocian Tuffs. Eng Geol 105(3–4):186–199

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erguvanlı K, Yorulmaz M, Cılı F, Ahunbay Z, Erdogan M (1989). Göreme yapısal koruma ve sağlamlaştırma projesi, El Nazar kilisesi, İTU (in Turkish; unpublished report)

  • Fookes PG, Dearman WR, Franklin JA (1971) Some engineering aspects of rock weathering. Q J Eng Geol 4:139–185

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franklin JA, Chandra R (1972) The slake durability test. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr 9:325–341

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gamble JC (1971) Durability–plasticity classification of shales and other argillaceous rocks, PhD thesis, geology, University of Illinois, Urbana

  • General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration (1990) Geological maps of Turkey, Kozan, M-33, 1:100.000, Ankara

  • Gökçeoğlu C, Ulusay R, Sönmez H (2000) Factors affecting the durability of selected weak and clay-bearing rocks from Turkey, with particular emphasis on the influence of the number of drying and wetting cycles. Eng Geol 57(3–4):215–237

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Göncüoglu MC (1977) Geologie des Westlichen Nigde Massivs. PhD thesis, Univ. Bonn

  • Göncüoğlu MC (1981a) Niğde Masifinin Jeolojisi. İç Anadolunun Jeolojisi Sempozyumu. Geological Society of Turkey, pp 16–19 (in Turkish with English abstract)

  • Göncüoğlu MC (1981b) Nigde Masifi’nde viridin gnaysın kökeni. Türkiye Jeol Kur Bült 24:45–51

    Google Scholar 

  • Göncüoğlu MC (1985) Nigde Masifi bati yarisinin jeolojisi. MTA Derleme Rapor No. 5883 (in Turkish)

  • Göncüoğlu MC (1986) Geochronological data from the southern part (Nigde area) of the Central Anatolian Massif. Bull Miner Res Explor Inst (MTA) 105(106):83–96

    Google Scholar 

  • Göncüoğlu MC, Toprak V (1992) Neogene and Quatrenary volcanism of central Anatolia: a volcano-structural evaluation. Bulletin de la Section de Volcanologie, So Geol 26:1–6

    Google Scholar 

  • Göncüoğlu MC, Toprak V, Kuşçu İ, Erler A, Olgun E (1991) Orta Anadolu Masifinin Batı Bölümünün Jeolojisi, Bölüm I: Güney Kesim. Turkish Petroleum Corporation Report No. 2909 (in Turkish)

  • Goodman RE (1989) Introduction to rock mechanics. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Gough M (1964) The monastery of Eski Gümüş: a preliminary report, source. Anatol Stud 15:157–164

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gough M (1965) The monastery of Eski Gümüş: second preliminary report, source. Anatol Stud 14:147–161

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Innocenti F, Mazzuoli G, Pasquare F, Radicati Di Brozolo F, Villari L (1975) The Neogene calcalkaline volcanism of Central Anatolia; geochronological data on Kayseri-Niğde area. Geol Mag 112(4):349–360

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) (1981) Rock characterization, testing and monitoring. In: Brown ET (ed) ISRM Suggested methods. Pergamon Press, Oxford

  • International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) (2007) The complete ISRM suggested methods for rock characterization, testing and monitoring: 1974–2006. In: Ulusay and Hudson (eds) Suggested methods prepared by the commission on testing methods, ISRM Turkish National Group, Ankara, Turkey

  • Ito T, Akagi T, Seiki T, Ulusay R, Yüzer E, Erdoğan M, Aydan Ö (1999) Long term behaviour of tuffs of Cappadocia. In: Proceedings Japan–Korea rock engg. symp Fukuoka, Japan, pp 359–370

  • Ketin İ (1966) Anadolu’nun tektonik birlikleri. Bull Miner Res Explor Inst (MTA) 66:20–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Koç MÖ, Kılınç E, Tecimer İ, Kayacılar C (2007) Niğde. Seçil Ofset, İstanbul

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Bas MJ, Le Maitre RW, Streckeisen A, Zanettin B (1986) A chemical classification of volcanic rocks based on the total alkali–silica diagram. J Petrol 27:745–750

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Le Pennec JL, Bourdier JL, Froger Temel A, Camus G, Gourgaud A (1994) Neogene ignimbrites of the Nevsehir plateau (Central Turkey): stratigraphy, distribution and source constraints. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 63:59–87

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • López-Doncel R, Wedekind W, Dohrmann R, Siegesmund S (2013) Moisture expansion associated to secondary porosity: an example of the Loseros Tuff of Guanajuato. Mexico Environ Earth Sci 69:1189–1201

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lourenço PB, Luso E, Almeida MG (2006) Defects and moisture problems in buildings from historical city centres: a case study in Portugal. Build Environ 41:223–234

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Middle East Technical University (METU) (1987) Investigation of the mechanism of stone deterioration for the purpose of conservation of Göreme tuffs. Middle East Technical University Progress Report, Ankara, p 61

    Google Scholar 

  • Mues-Schumacher U, Schumacher R (1996) Problems of stratigraphic correlation and new K-Ar data for ignimbrites from Cappadocia, Central Turkey. Int Geol Rev 38:737–746

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norwegian Group for Rock Mechanics (NBG) (1985) Engineering geology and rock engineering. Handbook No. 2, p 260

  • Pasquare G, Poli S, Vezzoli L, Zanchi A (1988) Continental arc volcanism and tectonic setting in Central Anatolia, Turkey. Tectonophysics 146:217–230

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rirsch E, Zhang Z (2010) Rising damp in masonry walls and the importance of mortar properties. Constr Build Mater 24:1815–1820

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sandrolini F, Franzoni E (2006) An operative protocol for reliable measurements of moisture in porous materials of ancient buildings. Build Environ 41:1372–1380

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sandrolini F, Franzoni E (2007) Repair systems for the restoration of ancient buildings—dampness rise problem. Restore Build Monument 13(3):161–171

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmid R (1981) Descriptive nomenclature and classification of pyroclastic deposits and fragment: recommendations of the IUGS subcommissions on the systematics of igneous rocks. Geology 9:41–43

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seymen İ (1981) Kaman çevresinde Kırşehir Masifi’nin metamorfizması. In: Orta Anadolu’nun Jeolojisi Sempozyumu, Ankara, pp 12–16 (in Turkish)

  • Seymen İ (1985) Kırşehir Masifi metamorfitlerinin jeoloji evrimi. In: Proceedings of Ketin symposium. Geological Society of Turkey pp 133–148 (in Turkish with English abstract)

  • Temel A (1992) Kapadokya eksplozif volkanizmasının petrolojik ve jeokimyasal özellikleri. PhD thesis, Department of Geological Engineering, Hacettepe University (in Turkish)

  • Temel A, Gündoğdu MN, Gourgaud A, Le Pennec JL (1998) Ignimbrites of Cappadocia (Central Anatolia, Turkey): petrology and geochemistry. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 85:447–471

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tomasic I, Lukic D, Pecek N, Krsinic A (2011) Dynamics of capillary water absorption in natural Stone. Bull Eng Geol Environ 70:673–680

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Topal T (1995) Formation and deterioration of fairy chimneys of the Kavak tuff in Ürgüp-Göreme area (Nevşehir-Turkey). PhD thesis, METU, Ankara, Turkey, p 250

  • Topal T, Doyuran V (1997) Engineering geological properties and durability assessment of the Cappadocian tuff. Eng Geol 47:175–187

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toprak V, Keller J, Schumacher R (1994) Volcanotectonic features of the Cappadocian Volcanic Province, excursion guide. Volcanological Cong, IAVCEI-Ankara

    Google Scholar 

  • Turkish Standards (TS 699) (2009) Natural building stones—methods of inspection and laboratory testing, Turkish Standards Institution, Ankara, 2009 (in Turkish)

  • Ulusay R, Aydan Ö (2007) Assessment of tuffs of some underground openings in Cappadocia Region from rock engineering view point. In: Proceedings of the symposium on the geology of the Cappadocia region, Niğde, Turkey, October 2007, pp 24–34 (in Turkish)

  • Ulusay R, Gokceoglu C, Binal A (1997) Physical and mechanical properties of the tuff samples from Cappadocia Region. Technical, Report

    Google Scholar 

  • Ulusay R, Akagi T, Ito T, Seiki T, Yüzer E, Aydan Ö (1999) Long term mechanical characteristics of Cappadocia tuff. In: Vouille G, Berest P (eds) Proceedings of the 9th ISRM international congress. A. A. Balkema, France pp 687–690

  • Ulusay R, Aydan Ö, Geniş M, Tano H (2013) Stability assessment of Avanos underground congress centre (Cappadocia, Turkey) in soft tuffs through an integrated scheme of rock engineering methods. Rock Mech Rock Eng. doi:10.1007/s00603-012-0363-6

  • Vařilová Z, Přikryl R, Cílek V (2011) Pravčice rock arch (Bohemian Switzerland National Park, Czech Republic) deterioration due to natural and anthropogenic weathering. Environ Earth Sci 63:1861–1878

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watanabe H, Tano H, Ulusay R, Yuzer E, Erdogan M, Aydan Ö (1999) The initial stress state in Cappadoccia. In: Proceedings of Japan–Korea Rock Engineering Symposium Fukuoka, Japan, pp 249–260

  • Wedekind W, Ruedrich J, Siegesmund S (2011) Natural building stones of Mexico–Tenochtitlán: their use, weathering and rock properties at the Templo Mayor, Palace Heras Soto and the Metropolitan Cathedral. Environ Earth Sci 63:1787–1798

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wentworth CK (1922) A scale of grade and class terms for clastic sediments. J Geol 30:377–392

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitney DL, Dilek Y (1997) Core complex development in central Anatolia. Geology 25:1023–1026

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitney DL, Dilek Y (1998) Metamorphism during crustal thickening and extension in central Anatolia: the Niğde metamorphic core complex. J Petrol 39:1385–1403

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitney DL, Hamilton MA (2004) Timing of high-grade metamorphism in central Turkey and the assembly of Anatolia. J Geol Soc Lond 161:1–6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitney DL, Teyssier C, Dilek Y, Fayon AK (2001) Metamorphism of the Central Anatolian crystalline complex, Turkey: influence of orogen-normal collision vs wrench dominated tectonics on P–T–t paths. J Metamorph Geol 19:411–432

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitney DL, Teyssier C, Fayon AK, Hamilton MA, Heizler MT (2003) Tectonic controls on metamorphism, partial melting, and intrusion: timing and duration of regional metamorphism and magmatism in the Nigde Massif, Turkey. Tectonophysics 376:37–60

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitney DL, Teyssier C, Heizler MT (2007) Gneiss domes, metamorphic core complexes, and wrench zones: thermal and structural evolution of the Niğde Massif, central Anatolia. Tectonics 26, TC5002, doi:10.1029/2006TC002040

  • Whitney DL, Umhoefer PJ, Teyssier C, Fayon AK (2008) Yo-yo tectonics of the Niğde Massif during wrenching in central Anatolia. Turk Jour Earth Sci 17:209–217

    Google Scholar 

  • Erguvanlı AK, Yüzer AE (1977) Past and present use of underground openings excavated in volcanic tufts at Cappadocia area. In: Proceedings on rock storage, Oslo, Norway, pp 15–17

  • Yılmazer İ (1993) Time factor accelerating deterioration at the Göreme Historical Site. In: Proceedings of International Seminar Safeguard of the Rock-hewn Churches of the Göreme Valley, September 1993, ICCROM, Rome, Italy

  • Yurtmen S, Rowbotham G (2002) Geochemistry, mineralogy and petrogenesis of the northeast Niğde volcanics, central Anatolia. Turk Geol J 37:189–215

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey, TUBITAK. Projects number: 106Y220.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Geological Engineering Department, Nigde University, 51240, Nigde, Turkey

    Mustafa Korkanç & F. Zafer Özgür

  2. Geological Engineering Department, Istanbul University, 34320, İstanbul, Turkey

    Atiye Tuğrul

  3. Biology Department, Nigde University, 51240, Nigde, Turkey

    Ahmet Savran

Authors
  1. Mustafa Korkanç
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Atiye Tuğrul
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ahmet Savran
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. F. Zafer Özgür
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mustafa Korkanç.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Korkanç, M., Tuğrul, A., Savran, A. et al. Structural–geological problems in Gümüşler archeological site and monastery. Environ Earth Sci 73, 4525–4540 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-014-3739-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-014-3739-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation