Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Biology and Functional Ecology of Equisetum with Emphasis on the Giant Horsetails

  • Published:
The Botanical Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Horsetails are unique survivors of a very ancient group of vascular plants, the Sphenophyta, which has a history reaching back to the Upper Devonian. Despite the striking conservatism of Equisetum architecture and anatomy and the small number of species (15) in the modern flora, their ability to thrive under a wide range of conditions is remarkable. This is due to a diverse suite of adaptations that allow tolerance of disturbance, soil anoxia, high metals, and salinity, along with efficient nutrient uptake and nitrogen fixation. The giant horsetails represent the largest living Sphenophyta and provide insights into how their larger ancestors lived and how this ancient lineage has managed to survive in tropical regions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Literature Cited

  • Allen, L. H., Jr. 1977. Soil water and root development. Crop and Soil Science Society of Florida Proceedings 36:4–9.

  • Allen, L. H. 1997. Mechanisms and rates of O2 transfer to and through submerged rhizomes and roots via aerenchyma. Soil and Crop Science Society of Florida Proceedings 56: 41–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Álvarez de Zayas, A. 1982. Equisetum giganteum Linne: Su redescubrimiento en Cuba después de 20 años. Revista del Jardín Botánico Nacional (Cuba) 3: 3–12.

  • Andersson, T. N. 1999a. Growth of field horsetails (Equisetum arvense) under low light and low nitrogen conditions. Weed Science 47: 41–46.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 1999b. Field horsetail (Equisetum arvense) - effects of potassium under different light and nitrogen conditions. Weed Science 47: 47-54.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong, J. & W. Armstrong. 2009. Record rates of pressurized gas-flow in the great horsetail, Equisetum telmateia. Were Carboniferous Calamites similarly aerated? New Phytologist 184: 202–215.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • ———, & ———. 2010. Reasons for the presence or absence of convective (pressurized) ventilation in the genus Equisetum. New Phytologist. 190: 387-397.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Auclair, A. N. D. 1979. Factors affecting tissue nutrient concentrations in a Scirpus-Equisetum wetland. Ecology 60: 337–348.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ballesteros, D., E. Estrelles, C. Walters & A. M. Ibars. 2011. Effect of storage temperature on green spore longevity for the ferns Equisetum ramosissimum and Osmunda regalis. CryoLetters 32: 89–98.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barber, D. A. 1961. Gas exchange between Equisetum limosum and its environment. Journal of Experimental Botany 12: 243–251.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beasleigh, W. J. & G. A. Yarranton. 1974. Ecological strategy and tactics of Equisetum sylvaticum during a postfire succession. Canadian Journal of Botany 52: 2299–2318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Begu, D. & A. Araya. 2009. The horsetail Equisetum arvense mitochondria share two group I introns with the liverwort Marchantia, acquired a novel group II intron but lost intron-encoded ORFs. Current Genetics 55: 69–79.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Behrensmeyer, A. K., J. D. Damuth, W. A. Dimichele, R. Potts, H.-D. Sues & S. L. Wing (eds). 1992. Terrestrial Ecosystems Through Time: Evolutionary Paleoecology of Terrestrial Plants and Animals. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell, A. D. & P. B. Tomlinson. 1980. Adaptive architecture in rhizomatous plants. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 80: 125–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bennert, W., M. Lubienski, S. Körner & M. Steinberg. 2005. Triploidy in Equisetum subgenus Hippochaete (Equisetaceae, Pteridophyta). Annals of Botany 95: 807–815.

  • Bierhorst, D. W. 1958. Vessels in Equisetum. American Journal of Botany 45: 534–537.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 1971. Morphology of Vascular Plants. The Macmillan Company, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bilderback, D. E. (ed). 1987. Mount St. Helens 1980, Botanical Consequences of the Explosive Eruptions. University of California Press Berkeley, California.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blom, C. W. P. M. & L. A. C. J. Voesenek. 1995. Flooding: the survival strategies of plants. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 11: 290–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borg, P. J. V. 1971. Ecology of Equisetum palustre in Finland, with special reference to its role as a noxious weed. Annales Botanici Fennici 8: 93–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bower, F. O. 1908. The Origin of a Land Flora: A Theory Based Upon the Facts of Alteration. Macmillan and Co., London.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Brabrand, A. 1985. Food of roach (Rutilus rutilus) and ide (Leuciscus idus): Significance of diet shift for interspecific competition among omnivorous fish. Oecologia 66: 461–467.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, R. R., J. Holzbecher & D. E. Ryan. 1981. Horsetails (Equisetum) as indirect indicators of gold mineralization. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 16: 21–26.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Browne, I. M. P. 1920. Phylogenetic considerations in the intermodal vascular strands of Equisetum. New Phytologist 19: 11–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 1922. Anatomy of Equisetum giganteum. Botanical Gazette 73:447-468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 1925. Structure of the rhizome of Equisetum giganteum. Botanical Gazette 80:48-62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brune, T., M. Thiv & K. Haas. 2008. Equisetum (Equisetaceae) species or hybrids? ISSR fingerprinting profiles help improve diagnoses based on morphology and anatomy. Plant Systematics and Evolution 274: 67–81.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buchtein, O. 1887. Entwicklungsgeschichte des Prothallium von Equisetum. Bibl. Bot. 2: 1–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, D. H. 1927. The Embryo of Equisetum debile, Roxb. Annals of Botany 42 (3): 717–728. 1927.

  • ———. 1928. The Embryology of Equisetum debile Roxb. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA. 13:554–555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cetto, A., H. Wiedenfeld, M. C. Revilla & I. A. Sergio. 2000. Hypoglycemic effect of Equisetum myriochaetum aerial parts on streptozotocin diabetic rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 72: 129–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Channing, A., A. Zamuner, D. Edwards & D. Guido. 2011. Equisetum thermale sp. nov. (Equisetales) from the Jurassic San Agustín hot spring deposit, Patagonia: Anatomy, paleoecology, and inferred paleoecophysiology.

  • Chen, C.-H. & J. Lewin. 1969. Silicon as a nutrient element for Equisetum arvense. Canadian Journal of Botany 47: 125–131.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cleal, C. J. & B. A. Thomas. 1999. Plant Fossils: The History of Land Vegetation. Boydell Press, Rochester, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Currie, H. A. & C. C. Perry. 2009. Chemical evidence for intrinsic ‘Si’ within Equisetum cell walls. Phytochemistry 70: 2089–2095.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • David, R., U. Peters & H. W. Bennert. 1990. Some aspects of water relations of Equisetum telmateia (Equisetaceae: Pteridophyta). Fern Gazette 13: 329–340.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dayanandan, P. 1977. Stomata in Equisetum: A structural and functional study. Doctoral Dissertation (Botany). University of Michigan.

  • Des Marais, D. L., A. R. Smith, D. M. Britton & K. M. Pryer. 2003. Phylogenetic relationships and evolution of extant horsetails based on chloroplast DNA sequence data (rbcl and trnL-F). International Journal of Plant Sciences 164: 737–751.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dosdall, L. 1919. Water requirement and adaptation in Equisetum. The Plant World 22(1–13): 29–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drew, M. C. & J. M. Lynch. 1980. Soil anaerobiosis microorganisms and root function. Annual Review of Phytopathology 18: 37–66.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duckett, J. G. 1979. An experimental study of the reproductive biology and hybridization in the European and North American species of Equisetum. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 79: 205–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ——— 1985. Wild gametophytes of Equisetum sylvaticum. American Fern Journal 75: 120–127.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ——— & A. R. Duckett. 1980. Reproductive biology and population dynamics of wild gametophytes in Equisetum. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 80: 1–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ——— & W. C. Pang. 1984. The orgins of heterospory: a comparative study of sexual behaviour in the fern Platyzoma microphyllum R. Br. and the horsetail Equisetum giganteum L. (Pteridophyta). Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 88: 11–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eggert, D. A. 1962. The ontogeny of Carboniferous arborescent Sphenopsida. Palaeontographica, ser. B, 110:99–127.

  • Emison, W. B. & C. M. White. 1988. Foods and weights of the rock ptarmigan on Amchitka, Aleutian Islands, Alaska (USA). Great Basin Naturalist 48: 533–540.

    Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, E. 1999. Silicon. Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 50: 641–664.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ernst, W. H. O. 1990. Ecophysiology of plants in waterlogged soil. Aquatic Botany 38: 73–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernández, N., M. I. Messuti & S. Fontenla. 2008. Arbuscular Mycorrhizas and Dark Septate Fungi in Lycopodium paniculatum (Lycopodiaceae) and Equisetum bogotense (Equisetaceae) in a Valdivian Temperate Forest of Patagonia, Argentina. American Fern Journal 98: 117–127.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franks, P. & T. J. Brodribb. 2005. Stomatal control and water transport in the xylem. pp 69–89. In: N. M. Holbrook & M. A. Zwieniecki (eds). Vascular Transport in Plants. Elsevier Acadmeic Press, Amsterdam.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • French, J. C. 1984. Occurrence of intercalary and uninterrupted meristems in Equisetum. American Journal of Botany 71: 1099–1103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fry, S. C., K. E. Mohler, B. H. W. A. Nesselrode & L. Frankova. 2008a. Mixed-linkage β -glucan: xyloglucan endotransglucosylase, a novel wall-remodelling enzyme from Equisetum (horsetails) and charophytic algae. The Plant Journal 55: 240–252.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • ———, B. H. W. A. Nesselrode, J. G. Miller & B. R. Mewburn. 2008b. Mixed-linkage (1 → 3,1 → 4)-β-D-glucan is a major hemicellulose of Equisetum (horsetail) cell walls. New Phytologist. 179: 104–115.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gastaldo, R. A. 1992. Regenerative growth in fossil horsetails following burial by alluvium. Historical Biology 6: 203–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gierlinger, N., L. Sapei & O. Paris. 2008. Insights into the chemical composition of Equisetum hyemale by high resolution Raman imaging. Planta 227: 969–980.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gifford, E. M., & A. S. Foster. 1989. Sphenophyta. Pages 175–207 in Morphology and Evolution of Vascular Plants. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco.

  • Golub, S. J. & R. H. Whetmore. 1948. Studies of development in the vegetative shoot of Equisetum arvense L. I. The shoot apex. American Journal of Botany 35: 755–767.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gorzalczany, S., A. Rojo, R. Rondina, S. Debenedetti & C. Acevedo. 1999. Estudio de toxicidad aguda por vía oral de plantas medicinales Argentinas. Acta Farmacía Bonaerense 18: 221–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grable, A. R. 1966. Soil aeration and plant growth. Advances in Agronomy 18: 57–106.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grant, T. A., P. Henson & J. A. Cooper. 1994. Feeding ecology of trumpeter swans breeding in central Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Management 58: 774–780.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grosse, W., J. Frye & S. Lattermann. 1992. Root aeration in wetland trees by pressurized gas transport. Tree Physiology 10: 285–295.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guillon, J.-M. 2004. Phylogeny of horsetails (Equisetum) based on the chloroplast rps4 gene and adjascent noncoding sequences. Systematic Botany 29: 251–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ——— 2007. Molecular phylogeny of horsetails (Equisetum) including chloroplast atpB sequences. Journal of Plant Research 120: 569–574.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gutiérrez, R. M. P., G. Y. Laguna & A. Walkowski. 1985. Diuretic activity of Mexican Equisetum. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 14: 269–272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haught, O. 1944. Some conspicuous ferns of northern South America. American Fern Journal 34:101–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hauke, R. L. 1963. A taxonomic monograph of the genus Equisetum subgenus Hippochaete. Nova Hedwigia 8: 1–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • ——— 1967. Stalking the giant horsetail. Ward's Bulletin 6: 1–2.

    Google Scholar 

  • ——— 1968. Gametangia of Equisetum bogotense. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 95: 341–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ——— 1969a. Gametophyte development in Latin American horsetails. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 96: 568–577.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ——— 1969b. The natural history of Equisetum in Costa Rica. Revista de Biologia Tropical 15: 269–281.

    Google Scholar 

  • ——— 1978. A taxonomic monograph of Equisetum subgenus Equisetum. Nova Hedwigia 30: 385–455.

    Google Scholar 

  • ——— 1985. Gametophytes of Equisetum giganteum. American Fern Journal 75: 132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ——— 1993. Equisetaceae. Pp. 76–84. In: Flora of North America Editorial Committee (Editors), Flora of North America: North of Mexico Volume 2: Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Oxford University Press, New York, NY.

  • Hodson, M. J., P. J. White, A. Mead & M. R. Broadley. 2005. Phylogenetic variation in the silicon composition of plants. Annals of Botany 96: 1027–1046.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hodson, E., F. Shahid & J. Basinger. 2009. Fungal endorhizal associates of Equisetum species form Western and Arctic Canada. Mycological Progress 8: 19–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, F. M. & C. J. Hillson. 1979. Effects of silicon on the life cycle of Equisetum hyemale L. Botanical Gazette 140: 127–132.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hofmeister, W. 1851. Vergleichende Untersuchungen zur Keimung, Entfaltung und Fruchtbildung höherer Kryptogamen. Engelmann, Leipzig.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holisova, V. 1976. The food eaten by the water vole Arvicola terrestris in gardens. Zoologicke Listy 25: 209–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hozhina, E. I., A. A. Khramov, P. A. Gerasimov & A. A. Kumarkov. 2001. Uptake of heavy metals, arsenic, and antimony by aquatic plants in the vicinity of ore mining and processing industries. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 74: 153–162.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Husby, C. E. 2009. Ecophysiology and biomechanics of Equisetum giganteum in South America. ProQuest ETD Collection for FIU. Paper AAI3380836. http://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/dissertations/AAI3380836

  • ———, J. Delatorre-Herrera, V. Oreste, S. F. Oberbauer, D. T. Palow, L. Novara & A. Grau. 2011. Salinity tolerance ecophysiology of Equisetum giganteum in South America; a study of eleven sites providing a natural gradient of salinity stress. AoB Plants. doi:10.1093/aobpla/plr022.

  • Huxley, A. 1975. Plant and Planet. Viking, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hyvonen, T., A. Ojala, P. Kankaala & P. J. Martikainen. 1998. Methane release from stands of water horsetail (Equisetum fluviatile) in a boreal lake. Freshwater Biology 40: 275–284.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jean, Y. & J. M. Bergeron. 1986. Can voles Microtus pennsylvanicus be poisoned by secondary metabolites of commonly eaten foods. Canadian Journal of Zoology 64: 158–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, M. A. 1936. Hydathodes in the genus Equisetum. Botanical Gazette 98: 598–608.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Judziewicz, E. J., L. G. Clark, X. Londoño & M. J. Stern. 1999. American Bamboos. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washignton, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karol, K. G., K. Arumuganathan, J. L. Boore, A. M. Duffy, K. D. Everett, J. D. Hall,, S. K. Hansen, J. V. Kuehl, D. F. Mandoli, B. D. Mishler, R. G. Olmstead, K. S. Renzaglia, & P. G. Wolf. 2010. Complete plastome sequences of Equisetum arvense and Isoetes flaccida: implications for phylogeny and plastid genome evolution of early land plant lineages. BMC Evolutionary Biology. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-10-321.

  • Kaufman, P. B., W. C. Bigelow, R. Schmid & N. S. Ghosheh. 1971. Electron microscope analysis of silica in epidermal cells of Equisetum. American Journal of Botany 58: 309–316.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kelber, K.-P. & J. H. A. van Konijnenburg-van Cittert. 1998. Equisetites arenaceus from the Upper Triassic of Germany with evidence for reporductive strategies. Reveiw of Palaeobotany and Palynology 100: 1–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kludze, H. K. & R. D. DeLaune. 1995. Gaseous exchange and wetland plant response to soil redox intensity and capacity. Soil Science Society of America Journal 59: 939–945.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Knox, J. P. 2008. Mapping the walls of the kingdom: the view from the horsetails. New Phytologist 179: 1–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koch, M. S. & J. A. Mendellsohn. 1989. Sulphide as a soil phytotoxin: differential responses in two marsh species. Journal of Ecology 77: 565–578.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Korpelainen, H. & M. Kolkkala. 1996. Genetic diversity and population structure in the outcrossing populations of Equisetum arvense and E. hyemale (Equisetaceae). American Journal of Botany 83: 58–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koske, R. E., C. F. Friese, P. D. Olexia & R. L. Hauke. 1985. Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas in Equisetum. Transactions of the British Mycological Society 85: 350–353.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krahulec, F., L. Hrouda & M. Kovarova. 1996. Production of gametophytes by Hippochaete (Equisetaceae) hybrids. Preslia 67: 213–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kranz, H. D. & V. A. R. Huss. 1996. Molecular evolution of pteridophytes and their relationship to seed plants: Evidence from complete 18S rRNA gene sequences. Plant Systematics and Evolution 202: 1–11.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lellinger, D. B. 1989. Equisetaceae. Pages 72–74 in The Ferns and Fern-allies of Costa Rica, Panama, and the Chocó (Part 1: Psilotaceae through Dicksoniaceae). American Fern Society, Inc., Washington, D. C.

  • Leroux, O., J. P. Knox, B. Masschaele, A. Bagniewska-Zadworna, S. E. Marcus, M. Claeys, L. van Hoorebeke & R. L. L. Viane. 2011. An extension-rich matrix lines the carinal canals in Equisetum ramosissimum, which may function as water-conducting channels. Annals of Botany 108: 307–319.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li, P., K. Matsunaga & Y. Ohizumi. 1999. Enhancement of the nerve growth factor-mediated neurite outgrowth from PC12D cells by Chinese and Paraguayan medicinal plants. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 22: 752–755.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lubienski, M. 2010. A new hybrid horsetail Equisetum x lofotense (E. arvense x E. sylvaticum, Equisetaceae) from Norway. Nordic Journal of Botany 28: 530–540.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———, H. W. Bennert & S. Körner. 2010. Two new triploid hybrids in Equisetum subgenus Hippochaete for Central Europe and notes on the taxonomic value of "Equisetum trachyodon forma Fuchsii"(Equisetaceae, Pteridophyta). Nova Hedwigia 90: 321–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Machutchon, A. G. 1989. Spring and summer food habits of black bears in the Pelly River Valley, Yukon (Canada). Northwest Science 63: 116–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, A. S., J. A. Arnone III, B. T. Bormann & G. C. Gordon. 2000. The role of Equisetum in nutrient cycling in an Alaskan shrub wetland. Journal of Ecology 88: 999–1011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, G. 1986. Growth and development of field horsetail Equisetum arvense. Weed Science 34(2): 271–275.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mesler, M. R. & K. L. Lu. 1977. Large gametophytes of Equisetum hyemale in northern California. American Fern Journal 67: 97–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milde, J. 1867. Monographia Equisetorum. Novorum Actorum Academiae Caesareae Leopoldino-Carolinae Germanicae Naturae Curiosorum 32.

  • Milton, J. N. B. & J. G. Duckett. 1985. Potential allelopathy in Equisetum. Proceedings. Section B, Biological Sciences. The Royal Society of Edinburgh 86B: 468–469.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moran, R. C. & R. Riba (eds). 1995. Flora Mesoamericana. Volumen 1. Pteridofitas, Psilotaceae a Salviniaceae, Univ. Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morton, J. F. 1981. Equisetum giganteum L. Pages 3–5 in Atlas of Medicinal Plants of Middle America. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Ill.

  • Moyroud, R. 1991. Searching for legendary plants: The giant horsetail. Fairchild Tropical Garden Bulletin 46: 8–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murillo, M. T. 1983. Equisetum giganteum L. Pp. 89–90 in Usos de los Helechos en Suramerica con Especial Referencia a Colombia. Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá, D. E.

  • Niklas, K. J. 1989a. Extracellular freezing in Equisetum hyemale. American Journal of Botany 76: 627–631.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ——— 1989b. Nodal Septa and the rigidity of aerial shoots of Equisetum hyemale. American Journal of Botany 76: 521–531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ——— 1989c. Safety factors in vertical stems: Evidence from Equisetum hyemale. Evolution 43: 1625–1636.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ——— 1997. The Evolutionary Biology of Plants. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nobel, P. S. 1999. Physiochemical and Environmental Plant Physiology, ed. 2nd. Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, California.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orcutt, D. M. & E. T. Nilsen 2000. Physiology of Plants Under Stress: Soil and Biotic Factors. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY.

  • Page, C. N. 1968. Spiral shoots in the Great Horsetail Equisetum telmateia Ehrh. Proceedings of the Botanical Society of the British Isles 7: 173–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • ——— 1985. Ecology and geography of hybridization in British and Irish horsetails. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 86B: 265–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • ——— 1997. The Ferns of Britain and Ireland, 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press.

  • ——— 2002. Ecological strategies in fern evolution: a neopteridological overview. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 119: 1–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parrish, J. T. 1993. Climate of the supercontinent Pangea. The Journal of Geology. 101: 215–233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pearson, L. C. 1995. The Diversity and Evolution of Plants. CRC Press. Boca Raton, Florida.

  • Parsons, W. T. & E. G. Cuthbertson. 1992. Noxious Weeds of Australia. Inkata Press, Melbourne, Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Praeger, R. L. 1934. Propagation from aerial shoots in Equisetum. Journal of Botany, British and Foreign. 72: 175–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Proctor, G. R. 1985. Ferns of Jamaica: a guide to the Pteridophytes. British Museuam of Natural History, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pryer, K. M., H. Schneider, A. R. Smith, R. Cranfill, P. G. Wolf, J. S. Hunt & S. D. Sipes. 2001. Horsetails and ferns are a monophyletic group and the closest living relatives to seed plants. Nature 409: 618–622.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pulliainen, E. & S. Tunkkari. 1991. Responses by the capercaillie Tetrao urugallus, and the willow grouse Lagopus lagopus, to the green matter available in early spring. Holarctic Ecology 14: 156–160.

    Google Scholar 

  • Purdy, B. G., S. E. MacDonald & V. J. Lieffers. 2005. Naturally saline boreal communities as models for reclamation of saline oil sand tailings. Restoration Ecology 13: 667–677.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qiu, Y. L., L. B. Li, B. Wang, Z. D. Chen, O. Dombrovska, J. Lee, L. Kent, R. Q. Li, R. W. Jobson, T. A. Hendry, D. W. Taylor, C. M. Testa & M. Ambros. 2007. A nonflowering land plant phylogeny inferred from nucleotide sequences of seven chloroplast, mitochondrial, and nuclear genes. International Journal of Plant Sciences. 168: 691–708.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Quarles, W. 1995. The truth about horsetails or natural plant disease protection from silica. Common Sense Pest Control 11: 18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raven, J. A. 2009. Horsetails get the wind up. New Phytologist 18: 6–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Read, D. J., J. G. Duckett, R. Francis, R. Ligrone & A. Russell. 2000. Symbiotic fungal associations in 'lower' land plants. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 355: 815–831.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reed, C. F. 1971. Index to Equisetophyta: 2, Extantes, Index Equisetorum. Reed Herbarium, Baltimore, MD.

  • Revilla, C. R. 2002. Hypoglycemic effect of Equisetum myriochaetum aerial parts on type 2 diabetic patients. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 81: 117–120.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rincón, E. J., H. G. Forero, L. V. Gélvez, G. A. Torres & C. H. Rolleri. 2011. Ontogenia de lost estróbilos, desarrollo de los esporangios y esporogénesis de Equisetum giganteum (Equisetaceae) en los Andes de Colombia. Revista de Biología Tropical 59: 1845–1858.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothwell, G. W. 1996. Pteridophytic evolution: an often underappreciated phytological success story. Review of Paleobotany and Palynology. 90: 209–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ——— & K. C. Nixon. 2006. How does the inclusion of fossil data change our conclusions about the phylogenetic history of euphyllophytes? International Journal of Plant Sciences 167: 737–749.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rutishauser, R. 1999. Polymerous leaf whorls in vascular plants: Developmental morphology and fuzziness of organ identities. International Journal of Plant Sciences 160(6 Suppl.): S81–S103.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutz, L. M. & D. R. Farrar. 1984. The habitat characteristics and abundance of Equisetum x ferrissii and its parent species, Equisetum hyemale and Equisetum laevigatum, in Iowa. American Fern Journal. 74: 65–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saint Paul, A. 1979. Seasonal variations in the contents of some mineral elements of Equisetum telmateia. Plantes Medicinales et Phytotherapie 13: 268–277.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sakamaki, Y. & Y. Ino. 2006. Tubers and rhizome fragments as propagules: competence for vegetative reproduction in Equisetum arvense. Journal of Plant Research 119: 677–683.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sapei, L., G. Notburga, J. Hartmann, R. Nöske, P. Strauch & O. Paris. 2007. Structural and analytical studies of silica accumulations in Equisetum hyemale. Anlytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 389: 1249–1257.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sarvala, J. T., T. Kairesalo, I. Koskimies, A. Lehtovaara, J. Ruuhijarvi & I. Vaha-Piikkio. 1982. Carbon, phosphorus and nitrogen budgets of the littoral Equisetum belt in an oligotrophic lake. Hydrobiologia 86: 41–53.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scagel, R. F., R. J. Bondini, J. R. Maze, G. E. Rouse, W. B. Schofield & J. R. Stein. 1984. Plants, An Evolutionary Survey. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaffner, J. H. 1924. Dichotomous branching in Equisetum. American Fern Journal 14: 56–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ——— 1927. Spiral shoots of Equisetum. American Fern Journal 17: 43–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ——— 1928. Fluctuation in Equisetum. American Fern Journal. 18: 69–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ——— 1930. Geographic distribution of the species of Equisetum in relation to their phylogeny. American Fern Journal. 20: 89–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ——— 1931. Propagation of Equisetum from sterile aerial shoots. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 58: 531–535.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ——— 1933. Six interesting characters of sporadic occurrence in Equisetum. American Fern Journal 23: 83–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ——— 1938. Root hairs of Equisetum praealtum Raf. American Fern Journal 28: 122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seward, A. C. 1898. Fossil Plants: for Students of Botany and Geology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

  • Seward, A. C. 1959. Plant Life through the Ages, a Geological and Botanical Retrospect. Hafner, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, S. M. 1968. Biochemistry of the plant cell wall. Pp. 1-51 in Comprehensive Biochemistry, Volume 26, M. Florkin & E. H. Stotz (eds.). Elsevier, Amsterdam.

  • Siegel, B. Z. & S. M. Siegel. 1982. Mercury content of Equisetum plants around Mount St. Helens one year after the major eruption. Science 216: 292–293.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, S. M., B. Z. Siegel, C. Lipp, A. Kruckbeberg, G. H. N. Towers & H. Warren. 1985. Indicator plant—soil mercury patterns in a mercury-rich mining area of British Columbia. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 25: 73–85.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sørensen, I., F. A. Pettolino, S. M. Wilson, M. S. Doblin, B. Johansen, A. Bacic & W. G. T. Willats. 2008. Mixed-linkage (1 → 3), (1 → 4)-β-D-glucan is not unique to to Poales and is an abundant component of Equisetum arvense cell walls. The Plant Journal 54: 510–521.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spatz, H.-C., L. Kohler & T. Speck. 1998a. Biomechanics and functional anatomy of hollow-stemmed sphenopsids. I. Equisetum giganteum (Equisetaceae). American Journal of Botany 85: 305–314.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • ———, N. Rowe, T. Speck & V. Daviero. 1998b. Biomechanics of hollow stemmed sphenopsids: II. Calamites: to have or not to have secondary xylem. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 102: 63–77.

  • Speck, T., O. Speck, A. Emanns & H.-C. Spatz. 1998. Biomechanics and functional anatomy of hollow-stemmed sphenopsids: III. Equisetum hyemale. Botanica Acta 111: 366–376.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spruce, R. 1908. Notes of a Botanist on the Amazon & Andes. A. R. Wallace, editor. St. Martin's Press, London.

  • Srinivasan, J., P. Dayananandan & P. B. Kaufman. 1979. Silica distribution in Equisetum hyemale var. affine in relation to the negative geotropic response. New Phytologist 83: 623–626.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stanich, N. A., G. W. Rothwell & R. A. Stockey. 2009. Phylogenetic diversification of Equisetum (Equisetales) as inferred from Lower Cretaceous species of British Columbia, Canada. American Journal of Botany 96: 1289–1299.

  • Stewart, W. N. & G. W. Rothwell. 1993. Paleobotany and the evolution of plants. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stolze, R. G. 1983. Equisetaceae. Pages 16–20 in Ferns and Fern Allies of Guatemala, Part III: Marsileaceae, Salviniaceae, and the Fern Allies. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.

  • Strand, V. V. 2002. The influence of ventilation systems on water depth penetration of emergent macrophytes. Freshwater Biology 47: 1097–1105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stützel, T. & A. Jädicke. 2000. Verzweigung bei Schachtelhalmen. Feddes Repertorium 111: 15–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, V. G. & J. P. Prevett. 1982. The role of horsetails (Equisetaceae) in the nutrition of northern-breeding geese. Oecologia 53: 359–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tiffney, B. H. (ed). 1985. Geological Factors and the Evolution of Plants. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut.

    Google Scholar 

  • Timell, T. E. 1964. Studies on some ancient plants. Svensk Papperstidning 67: 356–363.

  • Treitel, O. 1943. The elasticity, breaking stress, and breaking strain of the horizontal rhizomes of species of Equisetum. Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science 46: 122–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tryon, A. F. 1959. Ferns of the Incas. American Fern Journal 49: 10–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tryon, R. M. & A. F. Tryon. 1982. Ferns and allied plants, with special reference to Tropical America. Springer Verlag, New York.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Tschudy, R. H. 1939. The significance of certain abnormalities in Equisetum. American Journal of Botany 26: 744–749.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uchino, F., T. Hiyoshi & M. Yatazawa. 1984. Nitrogen-fixing activities associated with rhizomes and roots of Equisetum species. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 16: 663–667.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Hagen, H. G. J. M., L. H. W. T. Geelen & C. N. De Vries. 2008. Dune slack restoration in Dutch mainland coastal dunes. Journal for Nature Conservation 16: 1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verdoorn, F. 1938. Manual of Pteridology. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, W. H. & E. W. Hammitt. 1970. Natural proliferation of floating stems of scouring-rush, Equisetum hyemale. The Michigan Botanist 9: 166–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, E. R. 1931. The gametophytes of three species of Equisetum. Botanical Gazette 92:1–22.

  • Wassmann, R. & M. S. Aulakh. 2000. The role of rice plants in regulating mechanisms of methane emissions. Biology and Fertility of Soils 31: 20–29.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Westwood, M. R. I. 1989. An aberrant form of Equisetum telmateia (Pteridophyta) from the west of Ireland. The Fern Gazette 13: 277–281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, W. D. 1991. Chinese and Mongolian saline lakes: A limnological overview. Hydrobiologia 210: 39–66.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xia, Y., V. Sarafis, E. O. Campbell & P. T. Callagha. 1993. Non invasive imaging of water flow in plants by NMR microscopy. Protoplasma 173: 170–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yamanaka, S., K. Sato, F. Ito, S. Komatsubara, H. Ohata & Yoshino, K. 2012. Roles of silica and lignin in horsetail (Equisetum hyemale) with special reference to mechanical properties. Journal of Applied Physics 111 doi:10.1063/1.3688253.

Download references

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank the late Dr. Warren H. Wagner, Jr. for his encouragement to pursue studies of Equisetum. I also thank Dr. Jack Fisher for suggesting the development of this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. The Montgomery Botanical Center, 11901 Old Cutler Road, Coral Gables, FL, 33156, USA

    Chad Husby

Authors
  1. Chad Husby
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Chad Husby.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Husby, C. Biology and Functional Ecology of Equisetum with Emphasis on the Giant Horsetails. Bot. Rev. 79, 147–177 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12229-012-9113-4

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12229-012-9113-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation