Abstract
Although potentially harmful effects of heavy metals are well known, limited numbers of studies exist regarding their relationship with autism. The aim of this study was to investigate urine levels of some heavy metals such as of chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb) in children with autism and healthy subjects. Urine levels of Cr, Cd, and Pb were measured by atomic absorption spectrometry in 30 children with autism and compared with 20 healthy controls. Urine Cd and Pb levels were found as significantly decreased in children with autism compared to healthy subjects (p < 0.05). On the other hand, urine Cr levels were significantly higher in children with autism than healthy subjects (p < 0.05). This study suggested that autism may be associated with significant decrease in excretion rate of Cd and Pb and a significant increase excretion rate in the levels of Cr in the urine. These results have indicated that further studies are warranted for investigation of possible roles of heavy metals in autism.
References
American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, DSM-IVTM, 4th edn. American Psychiatric Association, Washington DC
Salnikow K, Zhitkovich A (2008) Genetic and epigenetic mechanisms in metal carcinogenesis and cocarcinogenesis: nickel, arsenic, and chromium. Chem Res Toxicol 21(1):28–44
Valko M, Rhodes CJ, Moncol J et al (2006) Free radicals, metals and antioxidants in oxidative stress-induced cancer. Chem Biol Interact 160(1):1–40
Broadhurst CL, Domenico P (2006) Clinical studies on chromium picolinate supplementation in diabetes mellitus—a review. Diabetes Technol Ther 8(6):677–687
Upreti RK, Shrivastava R, Chaturvedi UC (2004) Gut microflora & toxic metals: chromium as a model. Indian J Med Res 119(2):49–59
Iijima S, Matsumoto N, Lu CC (1983) Transfer of chromic chloride to embryonic mice and changes in the embryonic mouse neuroepithelium. Toxicology 26(3–4):257–265
Wecker L, Miller SB, Cochran SR et al (1985) Trace element concentrations in hair from autistic children. J Ment Defic Res 29(Pt 1):15–22
Adams JB, Holloway CE, George F et al (2006) Analyses of toxic metals and essential minerals in the hair of Arizona children with autism and associated conditions, and their mothers. Biol Trace Elem Res 110(3):193–209
Bertin G, Averbeck D (2006) Cadmium: cellular effects, modifications of biomolecules, modulation of DNA repair and genotoxic consequences (a review). Biochimie 88(11):1549–1559
Yang PM, Chiu SJ, Lin KA et al (2004) Effect of cadmium on cell cycle progression in Chinese hamster ovary cells. Chem Biol Interact 149(2–3):125–136
Fang MZ, Mar W, Cho MH (2002) Cadmium affects genes involved in growth regulation during two-stage transformation of Balb/3T3 cells. Toxicology 177(2–3):253–265
Dong S, Shen HM, Ong CN (2001) Cadmium-induced apoptosis and phenotypic changes in mouse thymocytes. Mol Cell Biochem 222(1–2):11–20
Kern JK, Grannemann BD, Trivedi MH et al (2007) Sulfhydryl-reactive metals in autism. J Toxicol Environ Health A 70(8):715–721
Shearer TR, Larson K, Neuschwander J et al (1982) Minerals in the hair and nutrient intake of autistic children. J Autism Dev Disord 12(1):25–34
Drum DA (2009) Are toxic biometals destroying your children's future? Biometals (in press)
Rana SV (2008) Metals and apoptosis: recent developments. J Trace Elem Med Biol 22(4):262–284
Fido A, Al-Saad S (2005) Toxic trace elements in the hair of children with autism. Autism 9(3):290–298
Yorbik Ö, Cöngöloğlu A, Dilaver B et al (2003) Investigation of hair head level in autistic children. Klinik Psikiyatri Dergisi (Turkish) 6(4):213–216
Adams JB, Romdalvik J, Ramanujam VM et al (2007) Mercury, lead, and zinc in baby teeth of children with autism versus controls. J Toxicol Environ Health A 70(12):1046–1051
Krug DA, Arick JR, Almond PJ (1993) Autism screening instrument for educational planning—ASIEP 2. Pro-ed Inc., Austin
Yilmaz-Irmak T, Tekinsav-Sutcu S, Aydin A et al (2007) Otizm davranış kontrol listesinin (ABC) geçerlik ve güvenirliğinin incelenmesi (An investigation of validity and reliability of autism behavior checklist, ABC). J Child Adolesc Ment Health (Turkish) 14(1):13–23
Holmes AS, Blaxill MF, Haley BE (2003) Reduced levels of mercury in first baby haircuts of autistic children. Int J Toxicol 22(4):277–285
Bradstreet J, Geier DA, Kartzinel JJ et al (2003) A case-control study of mercury burden in children with autism spectrum disorder. J Am Phys Surg 8:76–79
Soden SE, Lowry JA, Garrison CB et al (2007) 24-hour provoked urine excretion test for heavy metals in children with autism and typically developing controls, a pilot study. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 45(5):476–481
Yorbik O, Sayal A, Akay C et al (2002) Investigation of antioxidant enzymes in children with autistic disorder. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 67(5):341–343
Chauhan A, Chauhan V, Brown WT et al (2004) Oxidative stress in autism: increased lipid peroxidation and reduced serum levels of ceruloplasmin and transferrin—the antioxidant proteins. Life Sci 75(21):2539–2549
James SJ, Cutler P, Melnyk S et al (2004) Metabolic biomarkers of increased oxidative stress and impaired methylation capacity in children with autism. Am J Clin Nutr 80(6):1611–1617
McGinnis WR (2004) Oxidative stress in autism. Altern Ther Health Med 10(6):22–36
Ming X, Stein TP, Brimacombe M et al (2005) Increased excretion of a lipid peroxidation biomarker in autism. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 73(5):379–384
Yao Y, Walsh WJ, McGinnis WR et al (2006) Altered vascular phenotype in autism: correlation with oxidative stress. Arch Neurol 63(8):1161–1164
James SJ, Melnyk S, Fuchs G et al (2009) Efficacy of methylcobalamin and folinic acid treatment on glutathione redox status in children with autism. Am J Clin Nutr 89(1):425–430
Geier DA, Geier MR (2006) A clinical and laboratory evaluation of methionine cycle-transsulfuration and androgen pathway markers in children with autistic disorders. Horm Res 66(4):182–188
Geier DA, Kern JK, Garver CR et al (2009) A prospective study of transsulfuration biomarkers in autistic disorders. Neurochem Res 34(2):386–393
Vojdani A, Mumper E, Granpeesheh D et al (2008) Low natural killer cell cytotoxic activity in autism: the role of glutathione, IL-2 and IL-15. J Neuroimmunol 205(1–2):148–154
Baruthio F (1992) Toxic effects of chromium and its compounds. Biol Trace Elem Res 32:145–153
Bellinger DC (2008) Very low lead exposures and children's neurodevelopment. Curr Opin Pediatr 20(2):172–177
Bellinger DC (2007) Children's cognitive health: the influence of environmental chemical exposures. Altern Ther Health Med 13(2):S140–S144
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Yorbik, Ö., Kurt, İ., Haşimi, A. et al. Chromium, Cadmium, and Lead Levels in Urine of Children with Autism and Typically Developing Controls. Biol Trace Elem Res 135, 10–15 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-009-8494-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-009-8494-7