Abstract
The diagnosis of bipolar affective disorder (BD) is often delayed, and preceded by incorrect diagnoses and potentially harmful treatment, while the development of the disorder is associated with suicidal behavior and help seeking. Several clinical features have been linked to an increased risk of going on to develop BD, in particular attenuated symptoms of BD, personality traits such as cyclothymia, and general psychopathologic symptoms. Several of these show high specificity, indicating that it may be possible to target detection and intervention in individuals at high risk of BD and perhaps moderate the course of the illness and improve treatment outcome. This article summarizes recent evidence on the characteristics of the prodrome to BD and discusses the potential value and challenges of early detection and intervention in BD.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance •• Of major importance
Bauer M, Pfennig A. Epidemiology of bipolar disorders. Epilepsia. 2005;46:8–13.
Merikangas KR, Akiskal HS, Angst J, et al. Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of bipolar spectrum disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2007;64:543–52.
Pini S, de Queiroz V, Pagnin D, et al. Prevalence and burden of bipolar disorders in European countries. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2005;15:425–34.
Waraich P, Goldner EM, Somers JM, et al. Prevalence and incidence studies of mood disorders: a systematic review of the literature. Can J Psychiatry. 2004;49:124–38.
Brent DA, Perper JA, Moritz G, et al. Psychiatric risk factors for adolescent suicide: a case-control study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1993;32:521–9.
Brent DA, Perper JA, Goldstein CE, et al. Risk factors for adolescent suicide. A comparison of adolescent suicide victims with suicidal inpatients. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1988;45:581–8.
Craney JL, Geller B. A prepubertal and early adolescent bipolar disorder-I phenotype: review of phenomenology and longitudinal course. Bipolar Disord. 2003;5:243–56.
Suppes T, Leverich GS, Keck PE, et al. The Stanley Foundation Bipolar Treatment Outcome Network. II. Demographics and illness characteristics of the first 261 patients. J Affect Disord. 2001;67:45–59.
Hirschfeld RMA, Lewis L, Vornik LA. Perceptions and impact of bipolar disorder: how far have we really come? Results of the national depressive and manic-depressive association 2000 survey of individuals with bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64:161–74.
Baldessarini RJ, Tondo L, Hennen J, et al. Latency and episodes before treatment: response to lithium maintenance in bipolar I and II disorders. Bipolar Disord. 1999;1:91–7.
Highet NJ, McNair BG, Thompson M, et al. Experience with treatment services for people with bipolar disorder. Med J Aust. 2004;181:S47–51.
McIntyre RS, Konarski JZ. Bipolar disorder: a national health concern. CNS Spectr. 2004;9:6–15.
Franchini L, Zanardi R, Smeraldi E, et al. Early onset of lithium prophylaxis as a predictor of good long-term outcome. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1999;249:227–30.
Baldessarini RJ, Tondo L, Hennen J. Treatment-latency and previous episodes: relationships to pretreatment morbidity and response to maintenance treatment in bipolar I and II disorders. Bipolar Disord. 2003;5:169–79.
Swann AC, Bowden CL, Calabrese JR, et al. Differential effect of number of previous episodes of affective disorder on response to lithium or divalproex in acute mania. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156:1264–6.
Berk M, Dodd S, Callaly P, et al. History of illness prior to a diagnosis of bipolar disorder or schizoaffective disorder. J Affect Disord. 2007;103:181–6.
Perugi G, Micheli C, Akiskal HS, et al. Polarity of the first episode, clinical characteristics, and course of manic depressive illness: a systematic retrospective investigation of 320 bipolar I patients. Compr Psychiatry. 2000;41:13–8.
Berk M, Hallam K, Malhi GS, et al. Evidence and implications for early intervention in bipolar disorder. J Ment Health. 2010;19:113–26.
Altshuler LL, Post RM, Leverich GS, et al. Antidepressant-induced mania and cycle acceleration: a controversy revisited. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152:1130–8.
Altshuler LL, Suppes T, Black DO, et al. Lower switch rate in depressed patients with bipolar II than bipolar I disorder treated adjunctively with second-generation antidepressants. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163:313–5.
Leverich GS, Altshuler LL, Frye MA, et al. Risk of switch in mood polarity to hypomania or mania in patients with bipolar depression during acute and continuation trials of venlafaxine, sertraline, and bupropion as adjuncts to mood stabilizers. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163:232–9.
Post RM, Altshuler LL, Frye MA, et al. Rate of switch in bipolar patients prospectively treated with second-generation antidepressants as augmentation to mood stabilizers. Bipolar Disord. 2001;3:259–65.
Olvet DM, Stearns WH, McLaughlin D, et al. Comparing clinical and neurocognitive features of the schizophrenia prodrome to the bipolar prodrome. Schizophr Res. 2010;123:59–63.
Berk M, Hallam K, Lucas N, et al. Early intervention in bipolar disorders: opportunities and pitfalls. Med J Aust. 2007;187:S11–4.
Conus P, Ward J, Hallam KT, et al. The proximal prodrome to first episode mania—a new target for early intervention. Bipolar Disorders. 2008;10:555–65.
Bramon E, Shaikh M, Broome M, et al. Abnormal P300 in people with high risk of developing psychosis. NeuroImage. 2008;41:553–60.
Howes OD, Montgomery AJ, Asselin MC, et al. Elevated striatal dopamine function linked to prodromal signs of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 2009.
Howes O, Bose S, Turkheimer F, et al. Progressive increase in striatal dopamine synthesis capacity as patients develop psychosis: a PET study. Mol Psychiatry. 2011. doi:10.1038/mp.2011.20.
Skjelstad DV, Malt UF, Holte A. Symptoms and behaviors prior to the first major affective episode of bipolar II disorder. An exploratory study. J Affect Disord. 2011. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.03.003.
• Howes OD, Lim S, Theologos G, et al. A comprehensive review and model of putative prodromal features of bipolar affective disorder. Psychol Med. 2010:1–11. In this systematic review, we provide the frequency of symptoms and their specificity and sensitivity, as well as a framework for considering the prodrome to BD.
Thompson KN, Conus PO, Ward JL, et al. The initial prodrome to bipolar affective disorder: prospective case studies. J Affect Disord. 2003;77:79–85.
Kochman FJ, Hantouche EG, Ferrari P, et al. Cyclothymic temperament as a prospective predictor of bipolarity and suicidality in children and adolescents with major depressive disorder. J Affect Disord. 2005;85:181–9.
Correll CU, Smith CW, Auther AM, et al. Predictors of remission, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder in adolescents with brief psychotic disorder or psychotic disorder not otherwise specified considered at very high risk for schizophrenia. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2008;18:475–90.
Akiskal HS, Downs J, Jordan P, et al. Affective disorders in referred children and younger siblings of manic-depressives. Mode of onset and prospective course. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1985;42:996–1003.
Angst J, Gamma A, Endrass J. Risk factors for the bipolar and depression spectra. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 2003:15–9.
Blechert J, Meyer TD. Are measures of hypomanic personality, impulsive nonconformity and rigidity predictors of bipolar symptoms? Br J Clin Psychol. 2005;44:15–27.
•• Tijssen MJA, van Os J, Wittchen H-U, et al. Prediction of transition from common adolescent bipolar experiences to bipolar disorder: 10-year study. Br J Psychiatr. 2010;196:102–8. This prospective study mapped the development of BD in a large representative community sample at repeated time points over a period of up to 10 years.
Derogatis LR. SCL-90 Administration, Scoring and Procedures Manual-I for the R (Revised) Version and Other Instruments of the Psychopathology Rating Scale Series. Chicago: Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine; 1977.
Azorin J-M, Kaladjian A, Adida M, et al. Baseline and prodromal characteristics of first- versus multiple-episode mania in a French cohort of bipolar patients. Eur Psychiatry. 2011. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2010.11.001.
Findling RL, Youngstrom EA, McNamara NK, et al. Early symptoms of mania and the role of parental risk. Bipolar Disord. 2005;7:623–34.
Jones SH, Tai S, Evershed K, et al. Early detection of bipolar disorder: a pilot familial high-risk study of parents with bipolar disorder and their adolescent children. Bipolar Disord. 2006;8:362–72.
Bechdolf A, Nelson B, Cotton SM, et al. A preliminary evaluation of the validity of at-risk criteria for bipolar disorders in help-seeking adolescents and young adults. J Affect Disord. 2010;127:316–20.
McGorry PD, Yung AR, Phillips LJ. The “close-in” or ultra high-risk model: a safe and effective strategy for research and clinical intervention in prepsychotic mental disorder. Schizophr Bull. 2003;29:771–90.
Yung AR, Phillips LJ, McGorry PD, et al. Prediction of psychosis. A step towards indicated prevention of schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry Suppl. 1998;172:14–20.
Conus P, Ward J, Lucas N, et al. Characterisation of the prodrome to a first episode of psychotic mania: results of a retrospective study. J Affect Disord. 2010;124:341–5.
Skjelstad DV, Malt UF, Holte A. Symptoms and signs of the initial prodrome of bipolar disorder: a systematic review. J Affect Disord. 2010;126:1–13.
Fergus EL, Miller RB, Luckenbaugh DA, et al. Is there progression from irritability/dyscontrol to major depressive and manic symptoms? A retrospective community survey of parents of bipolar children. J Affect Disord. 2003;77:71–8.
Miklowitz DJ, Chang KD, Taylor DO, George EL, Singh MK, Schneck CD, et al. Early psychosocial intervention for youth at risk for bipolar I or II disorder: a one year treatment development trial. Bipolar Disorders. 2011;13:67–75.
Disclosure
No potential conflicts of interest relevant to this article were reported.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Howes, O.D., Falkenberg, I. Early Detection and Intervention in Bipolar Affective Disorder: Targeting the Development of the Disorder. Curr Psychiatry Rep 13, 493–499 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-011-0229-8
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-011-0229-8