Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Incarceration of People Living with HIV/AIDS: Implications for Treatment-as-Prevention

  • Co-infections and Comorbidity (CM Wyatt and K Sigel, Section Editors)
  • Published:
Current HIV/AIDS Reports Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Contact with the criminal justice system, including incarceration, is a common experience for many people living with HIV/AIDS. Optimism has recently been expressed that correctional facilities could be important locations for treatment-as-prevention (TasP)-based initiatives. We review recent findings regarding the effect of incarceration on patterns of HIV transmission, testing, treatment initiation and retention. We found that the prevalence of HIV infection among incarcerated individuals remains higher than analogous non-incarcerated populations. Recent studies have shown that voluntary HIV/AIDS testing is feasible in many correctional facilities, although the number of previously undiagnosed individuals identified has been modest. Studies have implied enhanced linkage to HIV/AIDS treatment and care in jails in the United States was associated with improvements in the HIV cascade of care. However, for many individuals living with HIV/AIDS, exposure to the correctional system remains an important barrier to retention in HIV/AIDS treatment and care. Future research should evaluate structural interventions to address these barriers and facilitate the scale-up of TasP-based efforts among individuals living in correctional settings.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance •• Of major importance

  1. Macalino GE, Vlahov D, Sanford-Colby S, Patel S, Sabin K, Salas C, et al. Prevalence and incidence of HIV, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus infections among males in Rhode Island prisons. Am J Public Health. 2004;94:1218–23.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Rotily M, Weilandt C, Bird SM, Käll K, Van Haastrecht HJ, Iandolo E, et al. Surveillance of HIV infection and related risk behaviour in European prisons. A multicentre pilot study. Eur J Pub Health. 2001;11:243–50.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Allwright S. Prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and HIV and risk factors in Irish prisoners: results of a national cross sectional survey. BMJ. 2000;321:78–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Amiya RM, Cope JE, Poudel KC, Jimba M. At the intersection of public health and criminal justice systems. Lancet. 2013;381:534.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). HIV transmission among male inmates in a state prison system--Georgia, 1992-2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2006;55:421–6.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Dolan KA, Wodak A. HIV transmission in a prison system in an Australian State. Med J Aust. 1999;171:14–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Taylor A, Goldberg D, Emslie J, Wrench J, Gruer L, Cameron S, et al. Outbreak of HIV infection in a Scottish prison. BMJ. 1995;310:289–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Zack B. Correctional health and the HIV stages of care. J Correct Health Care. 2013;19:229–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Jürgens R, Nowak M, Day M. HIV and incarceration: prisons and detention. J Int AIDS Soc. 2011;14:26. The most comprehensive review of the epidemiological, clinical and policy implications of incarceration among individuals living with/at risk of HIV.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Altice FL, Kamarulzaman A, Soriano VV, Schechter M, Friedland GH. Treatment of medical, psychiatric, and substance-use comorbidities in people infected with HIV who use drugs. Lancet. 2010;376:367–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Walmsley R. World prison population list. 9th ed. Essex: International Centre for Prison Studies; 2013. p. 1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Incarceration and crime: a complex relationship. Washington, DC: The Sentencing Project; 2005; pp. 1–11.

  13. Blumstein A, Beck AJ. Population growth in US prisons, 1980-1996. Crime Just. 1999;26:17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. West H, Sabol WJ, Greenman S. Prisoners in 2009. Washington, DC: United States Department of Justice; 2011. p. 1–38.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Rich JD, Diclemente R, Levy J, Lyda K, Ruiz MS, Rosen DL, et al. Correctional facilities as partners in reducing HIV disparities. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;63 Suppl 1:S49–53. An important call from leading US-based researchers into correctional health to engage correctional facilities in addressing HIV/AIDS-associated disparities.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Chandler RK, Fletcher BW, Volkow ND. Treating drug abuse and addiction in the criminal justice system: improving public health and safety. JAMA J Am Med Assoc. 2009;301:183–90.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Westergaard RP, Spaulding AC, Flanigan TP. HIV among persons incarcerated in the USA: a review of evolving concepts in testing, treatment, and linkage to community care. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2013;26:10–6. A review of seek, test, treat and retain campaigns among incarcerated individuals in the United States.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Spaulding AC, Seals RM, Page MJ, Brzozowski AK, Rhodes W, Hammett TM. HIV/AIDS among inmates of and releasees from US correctional facilities, 2006: declining share of epidemic but persistent public health opportunity. PLoS ONE. 2009;4:A16–21.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, Gamble T, Hosseinipour MC, Kumarasamy N, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493–505.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Montaner JSG, Lima VD, Barrios R, Yip B, Wood E, Kerr T, et al. Association of highly active antiretroviral therapy coverage, population viral load, and yearly new HIV diagnoses in British Columbia, Canada: a population-based study. Lancet. 2010;376:532–9.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Granich R, Kahn JG, Bennett R, Holmes CB, Garg N, Serenata C, et al. Expanding ART for treatment and prevention of HIV in South Africa: estimated cost and cost-effectiveness 2011-2050. PLoS ONE. 2012;7:e30216.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Montaner JSG, Hogg R, Wood E, Kerr T, Tyndall M, Levy AR, et al. The case for expanding access to highly active antiretroviral therapy to curb the growth of the HIV epidemic. Lancet. 2006;368:531–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Draine J, Ahuja D, Altice FL, Arriola KJ, Avery AK, Beckwith CG, et al. Strategies to enhance linkages between care for HIV/AIDS in jail and community settings. Aids Care Psychol Socio-Med Asp Aids-Hiv. 2011;23:366–77.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Westergaard RP, Kirk GD, Richesson DR, Galai N, Mehta SH. Incarceration predicts virologic failure for HIV-infected injection drug users receiving antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:725–31.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Milloy M-J, Kerr T, Bangsberg DR, Buxton J, Parashar S, Guillemi S, et al. Homelessness as a structural barrier to effective antiretroviral therapy among HIV-seropositive illicit drug users in a Canadian setting. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2012;26:60–7.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Clatts MC, Rodriguez-Diaz CE, Garcia H, Vargas-Molina RL, Jovet-Toledo GG, Goldsamt LA. Preliminary evidence of significant gaps in continuity of HIV care among excarcerated populations in Puerto Rico. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care (JIAPAC). 2011;10:339–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Milloy MJ, Montaner J, Wood E. Barriers to HIV treatment among people who use injection drugs: implications for ‘treatment as prevention”. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2012;7:332–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Rich JD, Dickinson BP, Macalino G, Flanigan TP, Towe CW, Spaulding A, et al. Prevalence and incidence of HIV among incarcerated and reincarcerated women in Rhode Island. JAIDS J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1999;22:161–6.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Burattini M, Massad E, Rozman M, Azevedo R, Carvalho H. Correlation between HIV and HCV in Brazilian prisoners: evidence for parenteral transmission inside prison. Rev Saude Publica. 2000;34:431–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Tyndall MW, Currie S, Spittal P, Li K, Wood E, O’shaughnessy MV, et al. Intensive injection cocaine use as the primary risk factor in the Vancouver HIV-1 epidemic. AIDS. 2003;17:887–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Choopanya K, Jarlais Des DC, Vanichseni S, Kitayaporn D, Mock PA, Raktham S, et al. Incarceration and risk for HIV infection among injection drug users in Bangkok. JAIDS J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;29:86–94.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Reekie JM, Levy MH, Richards AH, Wake CJ, Siddall DA, Beasley HM, et al. Trends in HIV, hepatitis B and hepatitis C prevalence among Australian prisoners - 2004, 2007, 2010. Med J Aust. 2014;200:277–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Azbel L, Wickersham JA, Grishaev Y, Dvoryak S, Altice FL. Burden of infectious diseases, substance use disorders, and mental illness among Ukrainian prisoners transitioning to the community. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e59643. The authors present the results from a representative survey of HIV and related matters among recently-released Ukranian prisoners.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Henostroza G, Topp SM, Hatwiinda S, Maggard KR, Phiri W, Harris JB, et al. The high burden of tuberculosis (TB) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in a large Zambian prison: a public health alert. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e67338. In the first published survey of its kind, the authors present the results of a screening programme for HIV and TB in a large Zambian prison, establishing that correctional-associated HIV transmission and pathogenesis should be an urgent priority in efforts to address the pandemic in Sub-Saharan Africa.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Mohamed HI, Saad ZM, Abd-Elreheem EM, Abd-ElGhany WM, Mohamed MS, Abd Elnaeem EA, et al. Hepatitis C, hepatitis B and HIV infection among Egyptian prisoners: seroprevalence, risk factors and related chronic liver diseases. J Infect Public Health. 2013;6:186–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Semaille C, Le Strat Y, Chiron E, Chemlal K, Valantin MA, Serre P, et al. Prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus among French prison inmates in 2010: a challenge for public health policy. Euro Surveill. 2013;18.

  37. Honarvar B, Odoomi N, Moghadami M, Afsar Kazerooni P, Hassanabadi A, Zare Dolatabadi P, et al. Blood-borne hepatitis in opiate users in Iran: a poor outlook and urgent need to change nationwide screening policy. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e82230.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Vagenas P, Azbel L, Polonsky M, Kerimi N, Mamyrov M, Dvoryak S, et al. A review of medical and substance use co-morbidities in Central Asian prisons: implications for HIV prevention and treatment. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;132 Suppl 1:S25–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Telisinghe L, Fielding KL, Malden JL, Hanifa Y, Churchyard GJ, Grant AD, et al. High tuberculosis prevalence in a South African prison: the need for routine tuberculosis screening. PLoS ONE. 2014;9:e87262.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Winetsky DE, Almukhamedov O, Pulatov D, Vezhnina N, Dooronbekova A, Zhussupov B. Prevalence, risk factors and social context of active pulmonary tuberculosis among prison inmates in Tajikistan. PLoS ONE. 2014;9:e86046.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Margolis B, Al-Darraji HAA, Wickersham JA, Kamarulzaman A, Altice FL. Prevalence of tuberculosis symptoms and latent tuberculous infection among prisoners in northeastern Malaysia. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2013;17:1538–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Skrahina A, Hurevich H, Zalutskaya A, Sahalchyk E, Astrauko A, Hoffner S, et al. Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Belarus: the size of the problem and associated risk factors. Bull World Health Organ. 2013;91:36–45.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Milloy M-J, Wood E, Tyndall M, Lai C, Montaner J, Kerr T. Recent incarceration and use of a supervised injection facility in Vancouver, Canada. Addict Res Theory. 2009;17:538–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Buavirat A. Risk of prevalent HIV infection associated with incarceration among injecting drug users in Bangkok, Thailand: case-control study. BMJ. 2003;326:308.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Epperson M, El-Bassel N, Gilbert L, Orellana ER, Chang M. Increased HIV risk associated with criminal justice involvement among men on methadone. AIDS Behav. 2007;12:51–7.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Widman L, Noar SM, Golin CE, Willoughby JF, Crosby R. Incarceration and unstable housing interact to predict sexual risk behaviours among African American STD clinic patients. Int J STD AIDS. 2014;25:348–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Brewer RA, Magnus M, Kuo I, Wang L, Liu T-Y, Mayer KH. Exploring the relationship between incarceration and HIV among black men who have sex with men in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;65:218–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Brewer RA, Magnus M, Kuo I, Wang L, Liu T-Y, Mayer KH. The high prevalence of incarceration history among Black men who have sex with men in the United States: associations and implications. Am J Public Health. 2014;104:448–54. An important analysis of the effects of mass incarceration on Black men who have sex with men in the United States.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Alexander M. The new Jim Crow. The New Press; 2013.

  50. Millett GA, Peterson JL, Wolitski RJ, Stall R. Greater risk for HIV infection of black men who have sex with men: a critical literature review. Am J Public Health. 2006;96:1007–19.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Halkitis PN, Kapadia F, Siconolfi DE, Moeller RW, Figueroa RP, Barton SC, et al. Individual, psychosocial, and social correlates of unprotected anal intercourse in a new generation of young men who have sex with men in New York City. Am J Public Health. 2013;103:889–95.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, Janssen RS, Taylor AW, Lyss SB, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm. Rep. 2006;1–17.

  53. Branson BM, Viall A, Marum E. Expanding HIV testing: back to the future. JAIDS J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;63:S117.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Granich RM, Gilks CF, Dye C, De Cock KM, Williams BG. Universal voluntary HIV testing with immediate antiretroviral therapy as a strategy for elimination of HIV transmission: a mathematical model. Lancet. 2009;373:48–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Yang Q, Boulos D, Yan P, Zhang F, Remis RS, Schanzer D, et al. Estimates of the number of prevalent and incident human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections in Canada, 2008. Can J Public Health. 2010;101:486–90.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Dieffenbach CW, Fauci AS. Universal voluntary testing and treatment for prevention of HIV transmission. JAMA J Am Med Assoc. 2009;301:2380–2.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Gagnon M, Jacob JD, Cormier L. Total control: a critical analysis of mandatory HIV testing in U.S. prisons. J Forensic Nurs. 2013;9:154–61. The authors summarize the substantial ethical, legal and human rights concerns around HIV testing in US correctional settings.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Seal DW, Eldridge GD, Zack B, Sosman J. HIV testing and treatment with correctional populations: people, not prisoners. J Health Care Poor Underserved. 2010;21:977–85.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. HIV testing and counselling in prisons and other closed settings. Geneva: United Nations Office on Drug Control and Crime; 2009 pp. 1–72.

  60. Pope JL. HIV testing in state correctional systems. JL Health. 2009;22:17.

    Google Scholar 

  61. HIV/AIDS prevention, care, treatment and support in prison settings. New York City: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime; 2006, pp. 1–50.

  62. Spaulding AC, Booker CA, Freeman SH, Ball SW, Stein MS, Jordan AO, et al. Jails, HIV testing, and linkage to care services: an overview of the EnhanceLink initiative. AIDS Behav. 2013;17 Suppl 2:S100–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. de Voux A, Spaulding AC, Beckwith C, Avery A, Williams C, Messina LC, et al. Early identification of HIV: empirical support for jail-based screening. PLoS ONE. 2012;7.

  64. Beckwith CG, Nunn A, Baucom S, Getachew A, Akinwumi A, Herdman B, et al. Rapid HIV testing in large urban jails. Am J Public Health. 2012;102 Suppl 2:S184–6.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Routine HIV screening during intake medical evaluation at a County Jail - Fulton County, Georgia, 2011-2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2013;62:495–7.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Solomon L, Montague BT, Beckwith CG, Baillargeon J, Costa M, Dumont D, et al. Survey finds that many prisons and jails have room to improve HIV testing and coordination of postrelease treatment. Health Aff (Millwood). 2014;33:434–42. This survey of prison and jail systems in the United States reveals that a low proportion of settings offer HIV testing and linkage consistent with official guidelines.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Wohl DA, Golin C, Rosen DL, May JM, White BL. Detection of undiagnosed HIV among state prison entrants. JAMA J Am Med Assoc. 2013;310:2198–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Springer S, Friedland G, Doros G, Pesanti E, Altice F. Antiretroviral treatment regimen outcomes among HIV-infected prisoners. HIV Clin Trials. 2007;8:205–12.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Babudieri S, Aceti A, D’Offizi GP, Carbonara S, Starnini G. Directly observed therapy to treat HIV infection in prisoners. JAMA J Am Med Assoc. 2000;284:179–80.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Meyer JP, Cepeda J, Wu J, Trestman RL, Altice FL, Springer SA. Optimization of human immunodeficiency virus treatment during incarceration: viral suppression at the prison gate. JAMA Intern Med. 2014. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.601. This retrospective review of all known individuals living with HIV/AIDS in a US state correctional system found substantial improvements in virologic control during incarceration.

    PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  71. Davies N, Karstaedt AS. Antiretroviral outcomes in South African prisoners: a retrospective cohort analysis. PLoS ONE. 2012;7. This small study of individuals in the South African prison system reported virologic outcomes comparable to that observed in high-resource settings.

  72. Baillargeon J, Giordano TP, Rich JD, Wu ZH, Wells K, Pollock BH, et al. Accessing antiretroviral therapy following release from prison. JAMA J Am Med Assoc. 2009;301:848–57.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Wakeman SE, McKinney ME, Rich JD. Filling the gap: the importance of medicaid continuity for former inmates. J Gen Intern Med. 2009;24:860–2.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Binswanger IA, Stern MF, Deyo RA, Heagerty PJ, Cheadle A, Elmore JG, et al. Release from prison–a high risk of death for former inmates. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:157–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Booker CA, Flygare CT, Solomon L, Ball SW, Pustell MR, Bazerman LB, et al. Linkage to HIV care for jail detainees: findings from detention to the first 30 days after release. AIDS Behav. 2013;17 Suppl 2:S128–36. This study identified important correlates of successful linkage following incarceration, including stable housing, in individuals participating in the EnhanceLink initiative.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Small W, Wood E, Betteridge G, Montaner J, Kerr T. The impact of incarceration upon adherence to HIV treatment among HIV-positive injection drug users: a qualitative study. AIDS Care. 2009;21:708–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Milloy M-J, Kerr T, Buxton J, Rhodes T, Guillemi S, Hogg R, et al. Dose-response effect of incarceration events on nonadherence to HIV antiretroviral therapy among injection drug users. J Infect Dis. 2011;203:1215–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Kerr T, Marshall A, Walsh J, Palepu A, Tyndall M, Montaner J, et al. Determinants of HAART discontinuation among injection drug users. AIDS Care. 2005;17:539–49.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Milloy M-J, Kerr T, Buxton J, Rhodes T, Krusi A, Guillemi S, et al. Social and environmental predictors of plasma HIV RNA rebound among injection drug users treated with antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;59:393–9.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Youmans E, Burch J, Moran R, Smith L, Duffus WA. Disease progression and characteristics of HIV-infected women with and without a history of criminal justice involvement. AIDS Behav. 2013;17:2644–53. This study describes how women with a history of involvement in the criminal justice system exhibit faster disease progression.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Westergaard RP, Hess T, Astemborski J, Mehta SH, Kirk GD. Longitudinal changes in engagement in care and viral suppression for HIV-infected injection drug users. AIDS. 2013;27:2559–66.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Pecoraro A, Royer-Malvestuto C, Rosenwasser B, Moore K, Howell A, Ma M, et al. Factors contributing to dropping out from and returning to HIV treatment in an inner city primary care HIV clinic in the United States. AIDS Care. 2013;25:1399–406.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Izenberg JM, Bachireddy C, Soule M, Kiriazova T, Dvoryak S, Altice FL. High rates of police detention among recently released HIV-infected prisoners in Ukraine: implications for health outcomes. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;133:154–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Springer SA, Qiu JJ, Saber-Tehrani AS, Altice FL. retention on buprenorphine is associated with high levels of maximal viral suppression among HIV-infected opioid dependent released prisoners. PLoS ONE. 2012;7.

  85. Wickersham JA, Zahari MM, Azar MM, Kamarulzaman A, Altice FL. Methadone dose at the time of release from prison significantly influences retention in treatment: implications from a pilot study of HIV-infected prisoners transitioning to the community in Malaysia. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;132:378–82. This study reveals how methadone dose at time of release from prison improved retention in treatment among formerly-incarcerated prisoners in Malaysia.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Springer SA, Altice FL, Herme M, Di Paola A. Design and methods of a double blind randomized placebo-controlled trial of extended-release naltrexone for alcohol dependent and hazardous drinking prisoners with HIV who are transitioning to the community. Contemp Clin Trials. 2014;37:209–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Meyer JP, Zelenev A, Wickersham JA, Williams CT, Teixeira PA, Altice FL. Gender disparities in HIV treatment outcomes following release from jail: results from a multicenter study. Am J Public Health. 2014;104:434–41.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Althoff AL, Zelenev A, Meyer JP, Fu J, Brown S-E, Vagenas P, et al. Correlates of retention in HIV care after release from jail: results from a multi-site study. AIDS Behav. 2013;17 Suppl 2:S156–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Avery AK, Ciomcia RW, Lincoln T, Desbrais M, Jordan AO, Rana AI, et al. Jails as an opportunity to increase engagement in HIV care: findings from an observational cross-sectional study. AIDS Behav. 2013;17 Suppl 2:S137–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Chen NE, Meyer JP, Avery AK, Draine J, Flanigan TP, Lincoln T, et al. Adherence to HIV treatment and care among previously homeless jail detainees. AIDS Behav. 2013;17:2654–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Chitsaz E, Meyer JP, Krishnan A, Springer SA, Marcus R, Zaller N, et al. Contribution of substance use disorders on HIV treatment outcomes and antiretroviral medication adherence among HIV-infected persons entering jail. AIDS Behav. 2013;17 Suppl 2:S118–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Jordan AO, Cohen LR, Harriman G, Teixeira PA, Cruzado-Quiñones J, Venters H. Transitional care coordination in New York City jails: facilitating linkages to care for people with HIV returning home from Rikers Island. AIDS Behav. 2013;17 Suppl 2:S212–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Krishnan A, Wickersham JA, Chitsaz E, Springer SA, Jordan AO, Zaller N, et al. Post-release substance abuse outcomes among HIV-infected jail detainees: results from a multisite study. AIDS Behav. 2013;17 Suppl 2:S171–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Spaulding AC, Pinkerton SD, Superak H, Cunningham MJ, Resch S, Jordan AO, et al. Cost analysis of enhancing linkages to HIV care following jail: a cost-effective intervention. AIDS Behav. 2013;17 Suppl 2:S220–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Williams CT, Kim S, Meyer J, Spaulding A, Teixeira P, Avery A, et al. Gender differences in baseline health, needs at release, and predictors of care engagement among HIV-positive clients leaving jail. AIDS Behav. 2013;17 Suppl 2:S195–202.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Zelenev A, Marcus R, Kopelev A, Cruzado-Quiñones J, Spaulding A, Desabrais M, et al. Patterns of homelessness and implications for HIV health after release from jail. AIDS Behav. 2013;17 Suppl 2:S181–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Spaulding AC, Messina LC, Kim BI, Chung K-W, Lincoln T, Teixeira P, et al. Planning for success predicts virus suppressed: results of a non-controlled, observational study of factors associated with viral suppression among HIV-positive persons following jail release. AIDS Behav. 2013;17 Suppl 2:S203–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Gardner EM, McLees MP, Steiner JF, del Rio C, Burman WJ. The spectrum of engagement in HIV care and its relevance to test-and-treat strategies for prevention of HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:793–800.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Milloy M-J, Kerr T, Salters K, Samji H, Guillemi S, Montaner J, et al. Incarceration is associated with used syringe lending among active injection drug users with detectable plasma HIV-1 RNA: a longitudinal analysis. BMC Infect Dis. 2013;13:565.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Prellwitz IM, Alves BM, Ikeda MLR, Kuhleis D, Picon PD, Jarczewski CA, et al. HIV behind bars: human immunodeficiency virus cluster analysis and drug resistance in a reference correctional unit from southern Brazil. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e69033.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Menezes P, Rosen D, Wohl DA, Kiziah N, Sebastian J, Eron JJJ, et al. Low prevalence of antiretroviral resistance among HIV type 1-positive prisoners in the Southeast United States. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir. 2013;29:136–41.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Montaner JSG, Lima VD, Harrigan PR, Lourenço L, Yip B, Nosyk B, et al. Expansion of HAART coverage is associated with sustained decreases in HIV/AIDS morbidity, mortality and HIV transmission: the “HIV treatment as prevention” experience in a Canadian setting. PLoS ONE. 2014;9:e87872.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Cescon A, Kanters S, Brumme CJ, Lepik KJ, Forrest JI, Hull M, et al. Trends in plasma HIV-RNA suppression and antiretroviral resistance in British Columbia, 1997-2010. J. Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013.

  104. Jürgens R, Betteridge G. Prisoners who inject drugs: public health and human rights imperatives. Health Hum Rights. 2005;8:46–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank Deborah Graham, Carmen Rock and Kristie Starr for their administrative assistance. This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health (R01 DA021525.) Dr. Milloy is supported by fellowships from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research and the Michael Smith Foundation for Health Research. This work was supported in part by a Tier 1 Canada Research Chair in Inner-City Medicine awarded to Dr. Wood.

Compliance with Ethics Guidelines

ᅟ

Conflict of Interest

M-J Milloy and Evan Wood declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Julio S.G. Montaner has received grants from Abbott, Biolytical, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Gilead Sciences, Janssen, Merck and ViiV Healthcare. He is also is supported: by the Ministry of Health Services and the Ministry of Healthy Living and Sport, from the Province of British Columbia; through a Knowledge Translation Award from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR); and through an Avant-Garde Award (No. 1DP1DA026182) from the National Institute of Drug Abuse, at the US National Institutes of Health. He has also received support from the International AIDS Society, United Nations AIDS Program, World Health Organization, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health Research-Office of AIDS Research, National Institute of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, the United States President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPfAR), Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, French National Agency for Research on AIDS & Viral Hepatitis (ANRS), Public Health Agency of Canada.

Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent

This article does not contain primary reporting of any studies by the authors involving human or animal subjects.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. British Columbia Centre for Excellence in HIV/AIDS, 608-1081 Burrard Street, Vancouver, BC, V6Z 1Y6, Canada

    M.-J. Milloy, Julio S. G. Montaner & Evan Wood

  2. Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

    M.-J. Milloy, Julio S. G. Montaner & Evan Wood

Authors
  1. M.-J. Milloy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Julio S. G. Montaner
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Evan Wood
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to M.-J. Milloy.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Milloy, MJ., Montaner, J.S.G. & Wood, E. Incarceration of People Living with HIV/AIDS: Implications for Treatment-as-Prevention. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 11, 308–316 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11904-014-0214-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11904-014-0214-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation