Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Flux-Cored Wire for Arc Additive Manufacturing of Alloy Steel: Effect of Inclusion Particles on Microstructure and Properties

  • Technical Article
  • Published:
Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Wire and arc additive manufacturing technology is an efficient manufacturing method to realize rapid prototyping of complex parts. Unlike most recent researches which mainly focus on the manufacturing process and equipment, this paper reports the findings of experiments in which the self-developed flux-cored wire is used for arc additive manufacturing of alloy steel. It studies the effects of the contents of inclusions forming elements Ti and Mn on the microstructure and properties of wall parts, and discusses the microstructure evolution in the manufacturing process. It is discovered that the grain size of alloy steel parts manufactured by arc additive is affected by the number of heterogeneous nucleation cores dominated by inclusions in the molten pool, resulting in changed performance of the samples. During the manufacturing process, different sections of the samples experience different thermal cycles. The central region of the sample is heated and tempered, the microstructure change from granular bainite and acicular ferrite into tempered bainite and massive ferrite, and its hardness decrease. Furthermore, the electron backscatter diffraction analysis shows that the thermal cycle makes for the recrystallization in the middle region of the sample, but plasticity of the material does not change. The mechanical properties of the samples do not show obvious anisotropy with decrease in the grain size. Therefore, this study is of particularly significance in developing raw materials for arc additive manufacturing.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. T.A. Rodrigues, V. Duarte, R.M. Miranda, T.G. Santos, and J.P. Oliveira, Current Status and Perspectives on Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM), Materials, 2019, 12(7), p 1121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. J. C Najmon, S. Raeisi, and A. Tovar. Review of Additive Manufacturing Technologies and Applications in the Aerospace Industry. Additive Manufacturing for the Aerospace Industry 7-31 (2019).

  3. A. Suárez, E. Aldalur, F. Veiga, T. Artaza, I. Tabernero, and A. Lamikiz, Wire arc Additive Manufacturing of an Aeronautic Fitting with Different Metal Alloys: From the Design to the Part, J. Manuf. Process., 2021, 64, p 188-197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Z. Pan, D. Ding, B. Wu, D. Cuiuri, H. Li, and J. Norrish. Arc Welding Processes for Additive Manufacturing: A Review. Transactions on Intelligent Welding Manufacturing 3-24. (2018).

  5. B. Wu, Z. Pan, D. Ding, D. Cuiuri, H. Li, J. Xu, and J. Norrish, A Review of the Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of Metals: Properties, Defects and Quality Improvement, J. Manuf. Process., 2018, 35, p 127-139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. D. Ding, Z. Pan, D. Cuiuri, and H. Li, Wire-Feed Additive Manufacturing of Metal Components: Technologies, Developments and Future Interests, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., 2015, 81(1), p 465-481.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. J.L. Prado-Cerqueira, A.M. Camacho, J.L. Diéguez, Á. Rodríguez-Prieto, A.M. Aragón, C. Lorenzo-Martín, and Á. Yanguas-Gil, Analysis of Favorable Process Conditions for the Manufacturing of Thin-Wall Pieces of Mild Steel Obtained by Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM), Materials, 2018, 11(8), p 1449.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. C.V. Haden, G. Zeng, F.M. Carter III., C. Ruhl, B.A. Krick, and D.G. Harlow, Wire and Arc Additive Manufactured Steel: Tensile and Wear Properties, Addit. Manuf., 2017, 16, p 115-123.

    Google Scholar 

  9. J. Lin, Y. Lv, Y. Liu, Z. Sun, K. Wang, Z. Li, Y. Wu, and B. Xu, Microstructural Evolution and Mechanical Property of Ti-6Al-4V Wall Deposited by Continuous Plasma Arc Additive Manufacturing Without Post Heat Treatment, J. Mech. Behave. Biomed. Mater., 2017, 69, p 19-29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. M. Dinovitzer, X. Chen, J. Laliberte, X. Huang, and H. Frei, Effect of Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) Process Parameters on Bead Geometry and Microstructure, Addit. Manuf., 2019, 26, p 138-146.

    Google Scholar 

  11. P. Kazanas, P. Deherkar, P. Almeida, H. Lockett, and S. Williams, Fabrication of Geometrical Features Using Wire and Arc Additive Manufacture, Proceed. Inst. Mech. Eng., 2012, 226(6), p 1042-1051.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. J.J. Lewandowski and M. Seifi, Metal Additive Manufacturing: A Review of Mechanical Properties, Annu. Rev. Mater. Res., 2016, 46, p 151-186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. M. Liberini, A. Astarita, G. Campatelli, A. Scippa, F. Montevecchi, G. Venturini, M. Durante, L. Boccarusso, F.M. Minutolo, and A. Squillace, Selection of Optimal Process Parameters for Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing, Procedia CIRP, 2017, 62, p 470-474.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. V.V. Pogorelko, and A.E. Mayer, Tensile Strength of Al Matrix with Nanoscale Cu, Ti and Mg Inclusions, J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 2016, 774(1), p 012034.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. W. Ou, T. Mukherjee, G.L. Knapp, Y. Wei, and T. DebRoy, Fusion Zone Geometries, Cooling Rates and Solidification Parameters During Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing, Intern. J. Heat Mass Transf., 2018, 127, p 1084-1094.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. J. Xiong, Y. Li, R. Li, and Z. Yin, Influences of Process Parameters on Surface Roughness of Multi-Layer Single-Pass Thin-Walled Parts in GMAW-Based Additive Manufacturing, J. Mater. Process. Technol., 2018, 252, p 128-136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. T. Wang, Y. Zhang, Z. Wu, and C. Shi, Microstructure and Properties of Die Steel Fabricated by WAAM Using H13 Wire, Vacuum, 2018, 149, p 185-189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. P. Dirisu, S. Ganguly, A. Mehmanparast, F. Martina, and S. Williams, Analysis of Fracture Toughness Properties of Wire+ Arc Additive Manufactured High Strength Low Alloy Structural Steel Components, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2019, 765, p 138-285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. L. Sun, F. Jiang, R. Huang, D. Yuan, C. Guo, and J. Wang, Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Low-Carbon High-Strength Steel Fabricated by Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing, Metals, 2020, 10(2), p 216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. A.S. Yildiz, K. Davut, B. Koc, and O. Yilmaz, Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of High-Strength Low Alloy Steels: Study of Process Parameters and their Influence on the Bead Geometry and Mechanical Characteristics, Inter. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., 2020, 108(11), p 3391-3404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. B. Wu, Z. Pan, D. Ding, D. Cuiuri, H. Li, and Z. Fei, The Effects of Forced Interpass Cooling on the Material Properties of Wire Arc Additively Manufactured Ti6Al4V Alloy, J. Mater. Process. Technol., 2018, 258, p 97-105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. X. Wang, C.H. Zhang, X. Cui, S. Zhang, J. Chen, and J.B. Zhang, Microstructure and Mechanical Behavior of Additive Manufactured Cr-Ni-V Low Alloy Steel in Different Heat Treatment, Vacuum, 2020, 175, p 109-216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Y. Ali, P. Henckell, J. Hildebrand, J. Reimann, J.P. Bergmann, and S. Barnikol-Oettler, Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of Hot Work Tool Steel with CMT Process, J. Mater. Process. Technol., 2019, 269, p 109-116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. J.A. Avila, J. Rodriguez, and P.R. Mei, Ramirez AJ Microstructure and Fracture Toughness of Multipass Friction Stir Welded Joints of API-5L-X80 Steel Plates, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2016, 673, p 257-265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. S.W. Thompson, D.J.V. Col, and G. Krauss, Continuous Cooling Transformations and Microstructures in a Low-Carbon, High-Strength Low-Alloy Plate Steel, Metall. Trans. A, 1990, 21(6), p 1493-1507.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. P.C. Collins, D.A. Brice, P. Samimi, I. Ghamarian, and H.L. Fraser, Microstructural Control of Additively Manufactured Metallic Materials, Annu. Rev. Mater. Res., 2016, 46, p 63-91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. J. Liu, R.L. Davidchack and H.B. Dong, Molecular Dynamics Calculation of Solid-Liquid Interfacial Free Energy and its Anisotropy During Iron Solidification, Comput. Mater. Sci., 2013, 74, p 92-100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. L. Thijs, M.L. Sistiaga, R. Wauthle, Q. Xie, J.P. Kruth, and J. Van Humbeeck, Strong morphological and crystallographic texture and resulting yield strength anisotropy in selective laser melted tantalum, Acta Mater., 2013, 61(12), p 4657-4668.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. E. Bagherpour, F. Qods, R. Ebrahimi, and H. Miyamoto, Microstructure and Texture Inhomogeneity After Large Non-Monotonic Simple Shear Strains: Achievements of Tensile Properties, Metals, 2018, 8(8), p 583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. J. Lu, X. Wu, Z. Liu, X. Chen, B. Xu, Z. Wu, and S. Ruan, Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Ultrafinegrained Copper Produced Using Intermittent Ultrasonic-Assisted Equal-Channel Angular Pressing, Metal. Mater. Trans. A, 2016, 47, p 4648-4658.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors do appreciate the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51974243), National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51904243), Natural Science Foundation of Shaanxi Province (Grant No. 2019JZ-31) and Natural Science Foundation of Shaanxi Provincial Department (Grant No. 2019JQ-284) for their financial support to the study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an, 710048, China

    Min Zhang, Shuai Xu, Qiaoling Chu, Boyu Wang, Lisheng Zhang, Xiaoyu He, Xiongwei Tong & Lin Zhang

Authors
  1. Min Zhang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Shuai Xu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Qiaoling Chu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Boyu Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Lisheng Zhang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Xiaoyu He
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Xiongwei Tong
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Lin Zhang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Min Zhang.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Zhang, M., Xu, S., Chu, Q. et al. Flux-Cored Wire for Arc Additive Manufacturing of Alloy Steel: Effect of Inclusion Particles on Microstructure and Properties. J. of Materi Eng and Perform 31, 8955–8966 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-022-06973-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-022-06973-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation