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The Evolution of Oxygen-Based Inclusions in an Additively Manufactured Super-Duplex Stainless Steel

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Abstract

Super-duplex stainless steel powder feedstocks specified for use in directed energy deposition additive manufacturing processes can have an oxygen composition nearly five times higher than that present in comparable wrought forms. A combination of computational thermodynamic calculations and experimental validation showed that high levels of oxygen promoted the formation of oxygen-rich inclusions during directed energy deposition additive manufacturing. These inclusions play an important role in microstructural evolution during the rapid heating and cooling cycles prevalent in additive manufacturing and impact mechanical and corrosion properties. Inclusions observed across the powder feedstock and additively manufactured and post-processed materials exhibited complex structures with a combination of amorphous, metastable, and stable phases. The powder feedstock, which experiences rapid cooling rates during the gas atomization process, yielded amorphous inclusions that were rich in manganese, chromium, silicon, and oxygen surrounded by small crystalline MnS particles. After additive manufacturing, inclusions transformed to a combination of rhodonite (MnSiO3) and spinel (MnCr2O4) with amorphous regions around the exterior. Post-process hot isostatic pressing treatments, which replicate conditions most similar to equilibrium, resulted in the formation of a stable spinel oxide with MnS particles around the exterior, matching the results predicted by thermodynamic equilibrium calculations.

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Notes

  1. Sandvik Osprey (Neath, UK).

  2. Luvak Laboratories (Boylston, US).

  3. Thermo-Calc Software (Solna SE).

  4. IPG Photonics (Oxford, US).

  5. Quintus Technologies AMD Application Center (Columbus, US).

  6. Thermo Fisher Scientific (Waltham, US).

  7. Oxford Instruments (Abingdon, UK).

  8. National Institutes of Health (Bethesda, US).

  9. Bruker Nano GmbH (Berlin, DE).

  10. JEMS-SWISS (Jongny, CH).

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Acknowledgments

A. D. Iams acknowledges the support from the American Welding Society Foundation Research Fellowship. The authors acknowledge the Office of Naval Research Manufacturing Technology program and the Applied Research Laboratory’s Institute for Manufacturing and Sustainment Technologies that is funded under the Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA) Contract #N00024-12-D-6404. The authors thank the Center for Innovative Materials Processing through Direct Digital Deposition (CIMP-3D) for the use of their equipment and Mr. Jay Tressler for fabrication of the builds. We also acknowledge Mr. Magnus Ahlfors at Quintus Technologies for performing hot isostatic pressing.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Material Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA

    A. D. Iams, J. S. Keist & T. A. Palmer

  2. Applied Research Laboratory, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA

    J. S. Keist

  3. L.A. Giannuzzi & Associates LLC, Fort Myers, FL, 33913, USA

    L. A. Giannuzzi

  4. Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA

    T. A. Palmer

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  1. A. D. Iams
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Correspondence to T. A. Palmer.

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Manuscript submitted November 25, 2020; accepted April 24, 2021.

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Iams, A.D., Keist, J.S., Giannuzzi, L.A. et al. The Evolution of Oxygen-Based Inclusions in an Additively Manufactured Super-Duplex Stainless Steel. Metall Mater Trans A 52, 3401–3412 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-021-06311-8

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