Abstract
The response and recovery mechanisms of forests to damage from freezing rain and snow events are a key topic in forest research and management. However, the relationship between the degree of damage and tree age, i.e., whether seedlings, young trees, or adult trees are most vulnerable, remains unclear and is rarely reported. We investigated the effect of tree age on the degrees of vegetation damage and subsequent recovery in three subtropical forest types-coniferous, mixed, and broad-leaved—in the Tianjing Mountains, South China, after a series of rare icy rain and freezing snow events in 2008. The results showed that damage and recovery rates were both dependent on tree age, with the proportion of damaged vegetation increasing with age (estimated by diameter at breast height, DBH) in all three forest types and gradually plateauing. Significant variation occurred among forest types. Young trees in the coniferous forest were more vulnerable than those in the broad-leaved forest. The type of damage also varied with tree age in different ways in the three forest types. The proportion of young seedlings that were uprooted (the most severe type of damage) was highest in the coniferous forest. In the mixed forest, young trees were significantly more likely to be uprooted than seedlings and adult trees, while in the broad-leaved forest, the proportion of uprooted adult trees was significantly higher than that of seedlings and young trees. There were also differences among forest types in how tree age affected damage recovery. In the coniferous forest, the recovery rate of trees with broken trunks or crowns (DBH > 2.5 cm) increased with tree age. However, in the mixed and broad-leaved forests, no obvious correlation between the recovery rate of trees with broken trunks or crowns and tree age was observed. Trees with severe root damage did not recover; they were uprooted and died. In these forests, vegetation damage and recovery showed tree age dependencies, which varied with tree shape, forest type, and damage type. Understanding this dependency will guide restoration after freezing rain and snow disturbances.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Nishimura TB. Tree characteristics related to stem breakage of Picea glehnii and Abies sachalinensis. Forest Ecol Manag, 2005, 215: 295–306
Nykänenet M, Peltola H, Quine C, Kellomäki S, Broadgate M. Factors affecting snow damage of trees with particular reference to European conditions. Silva Fenn, 1997, 2: 193–213
Pisaric MF, King DJ, Macintosh AJ, Bemrose R. Impact of The 1998 Ice Storm on The Health and Growth of Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.) Dominated Forests in Gatineau Park, Quebec 1. The J Torrey Bot Soc, 2008, 135: 530–539
Warrillow M, Mou P. Ice storm damage to forest tree species in the ridge and valley region of southwestern Virginia. J Torrey Bot Soc, 1999, 126: 147–158
Bragg DC, Shelton MG, Zeide B. Impacts and management implications of ice storms on forests in the southern United States. Forest Ecol Manag, 2003, 186: 99–123
Zhou BZ, Yu MK, Cao YH, Wang XM, Sun HG, Ai C, Gu LH. Impact of the 2008 Ice Storm on China’s Forests. Shanxi, China, 2011, 4:2652–2656
Rhoads AG, Hamburg SP, Fahey TJ, Siccama TG, Hane EN, Battles J, Cogbill C, Randall J, Wilson G. Effects of an intense ice storm on the structure of a northern hardwood forest. CAN J Forest Res, 2002, 32: 1763–1775
Smith K. Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing Disaster. Routledge. London/USA/Canada, 1996, 1–324
Zhang ZX, Liu P, Qiu ZJ, Liu CS, Chen WX, Li CH, Liao JP, Li HJ. Factors influencing ice and snow damage to Pinus taiwanensis in Jiulongshan Nature Reserve, China. Chinese J Plant Ecol (in Chinese), 2010, 34: 223–232
Amateis RL, Burkhart HE. Impact of heavy glaze in a loblolly pine spacing trial. South J of Appl For, 1996, 20: 151–155
Chen YH, Xue L, Li JY, Chen SQ, Qin XS, Chen CG, Jiang J. Comparison between characteristics of ice damage to three stands. J South China Agricultural University (in Chinese), 2010, 31: 78–81
Li HJ, Liu P, Zhang ZX, Chen WX, Qiu ZJ, Liu CS, Liu JL, Liao JP. Ice and Snow Damage and Subsequent Sprouting of Cunninghamia lanceolata (Taxodiaceae) Plantation and their related-factors analysis. Acta Botanica Yunnanica (in Chinese), 2010, 32: 158–166
He Q, Li JY, Chen XY, Chen HY, Peng HG, Fan SJ. Types and extent of damage to Cunninghamia lanceolata plantations due to unusually heavy snow and ice in southern China. Chinese J Plant Eco, 2010, 34: 195–203
Lafon CW. Ice-storm disturbance and long-term forest dynamics in the Adirondack Mountains. J Veg Sci, 2004, 15: 267–276
Huang CT, Zhuang XY, Li XR, Liu ZX, Jiang B, Zhai CH. Damaged status and early tree species in Wuzhishan of Nanling Mountain, South China after the ice storm in 2008. Chinese Journal of Ecology (in Chinese), 2012, 6: 1390–1396
Liu G, Ou YD, Li ZK, Li MZ, Ma DX, Su ZY. Floristic and Co enological analyses of the montane evergreen broadleaved forest in Chebaling National Nature Reserve impacted by a huge ice storm. J South China Agricultural University (in Chinese), 2010, 31: 82–87
Shao QQ, Huang L, Liu JY, Kuang WH, Li J. Analysis of forest damages caused by the snow and ice Chaos in Transect of Southern China in 2008 Spring. J Geographical Sci (in Chinese), 2009, 27: 177–187
Xu QJ, Liu BJ. Disaster effects of snow and freezing on different forest types in Chongqing city. Journal of Central South University of Forestry & Technology (in Chinese), 2011, 31: 74–78
Liu LF, Tan QS, Liu PL, Chen T. Study on formation mechanism of snow-frozen and the disaster relieve counter measure on forestry in Hunan Province. J Hengyang Normal University (in Chinese), 2008, 29: 101–104
Yang YZ, Zhang LW, Chen AL, Xu YL. A preliminary report on the loss of forest resources caused by consecutive snow and freezing weather in Shaanxi. Shaanxi Forest Science and Technology (in Chinese), 2008, 42–45
Cao KF, Chang J. The ecological effects of an unusual climatic disaster: the destruction to forest ecosystems by the extremely heavy glaze and snow storms occurred in early 2008 in southern China. Chinese J Plant Eco (in Chinese), 2010, 34: 123–124
Cao XH, Guo BJ. The reason of the lost in rain and snow freeze disaster TaiXian. Anhui Forestry Science and Technology (in Chinese), 2009, 135: 9–11
Xu DM, Han M. Study on the reasons and counter measures of snow and freezing-rain disaster. Serves of Agricultural Technology (in Chinese), 2010, 27: 111–113
Li XF, Zhu JJ, Wang QL, Liu ZG, Mao ZH. Relationships between snow wind damage and tree species as well as forest types in secondary forest. J Beijing Forestry University (in Chinese). 2006, 24: 28–33
Xu YW, Wu KK, Zhu LR, Lin ZG, Peng SL. A review of freezing rain and snow impacts on forests in southern China. Ecology and Environmental Sciences (in Chinese). 2010, 6: 1485–1494
Wu LJ, Liu XJ, Yan WB. Study on recovery strategy of damaged forest vegetation by ice disaster in Suxianling Scenery Zone. Modern Agricultural Sciences (in Chinese), 2008, 15: 14–16
Roberts EG, Clapp RT. Effect of pruning on the recovery of ice bent slash pines. J Forest. 1956, 54: 596–597
Carissa L, Wonkka, WC, Joslin AJ. A CSR classification of tree life history strategies and implications for ice storm damage. Oikos. 2013, 122: 209–222
De Steven D, Kline J, Matthiae PE. J Veg. Sci. 1991, 2: 201–208
Duguay SM, Arii K, Hooper M, Lechowicz MJ. Ice storm damage and early recovery in an old-growth forest. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2001, 67: 97–108
Wang X, Huang SN, Zhou GY, Li JX, Qiu ZJ, Zhao X, Zou B. Effects of the frozen rain and snow disaster on the dominant species of Castanopsis forests in Yangdongshan Shierdushui Provincial Nature Reserve of Guangdong. Scientia Silvae Sinicae (in Chinese), 2009, 45: 41–47
Song YC, Chen X. Studies on evergreen broadleaved forests of China: a retrospect and prospect. Journal of East China Normal University (Natural Science) (in Chinese), 2005, 1: 1–8
Wang BS, Yu SX, Peng SL. Phytocoenology laboratory manual. Guangdong: Guangdong Higher Education Press (in Chinese), 1996, 23–105
Zhao X, Shen XQ, Huang SN, Luo XH, Luo TS, Zeng FZ, Zhang N, Yu WS, Xiao YH, Wang X. Mechanical damages to woody plants from a snow disaster in Yangdongshan Shierdushui Provincial nature reserve. Scientia Silvae Sinicae (in Chinese), 2008, 44: 164–167
Zhao JF, Dong WY, Mao WJ, Wang L. An investigation on snow Damage on four kinds of bamboo forests in Daguan County. China West Scientia Silvae Sinicae (in Chinese), 2009, 38: 96–100
Petty JA, Worrell R. Stability of coniferous tree stems in relation to damage by snow. Forestry. 1981, 54: 115–128
Cremer KW, Borough CJ, McKinnell FH, Carter PR. Effects of stocking and thinning on wind damage in pine plantations. New Zeal. J For Sci, 1982: 12: 244–268
Peterson CJ. Within-stand variation in windthrow in southern boreal forests of Minnesota: Is it predictable? CAN J Forest Res, 2004, 34: 365–375
Everham EM, Brokaw N. Forest damage and recovery from catastrophic wind. Bot Rev, 1996, 62: 113–185
Zhu JJ, Li XF, Liu ZG, Cao W, Gonda Y, Matsuzaki T. Factors Affecting the Snow and wind Induced damage of a montane Secondary Forest in Northeastern China. Silva. Fenn, 2006, 40: 37–51
Peltola H, Nykänen M, Kellomäki S. Model computations on the critical combination of snow loading and wind speed for snow damage of Scots pine, Norway spruce and birch sp. at stand edge. Forest Ecol Manag, 1995, 229–241
Webb S. Windstorm damage and micro site colonization in two Minnesota forests. CAN J Forest Res, 1988, 112:18: 1186–1195
Matlack GR, Gleeson S, Good R. Tree fall in a mixed oak-pine coastal plain forest: immediate and historical causation. Ecology, 1993, 74: 1559–1566
Peterson CJ. Catastrophic wind damage to North American forests and the potential impact of climate change. Sci Total Environ, 2000, 262: 287–311
Dyke OV. A literature review of ice storm impact on forests in Eastern North America. SCSS Technical Report #112. Landmark Consulting, 1999
Beach RH, Sills EO, Liu T, Pattanayak S. The influence of forest management on vulnerability of forests to severe weather. In: Pye J M, Rauscher H M, Sands Y, Lee D C, Beatty J S, eds. Advances in threat assessment and their application to forest and rangeland management General Technical Report PNW-GTR-802, 2010, 185–206
Bruederle LP, Stearns FW. Ice storm damage to a southern Wisconsin mesic forest. J Torrey Bot Club, 1985, 95: 167–175
Hough AF. What a glaze storm brings. Pennsylvania Forest. 1965, 33: 4–5
Wang Y, Wang YS. Biomass-dependent susceptibility to drought in experimental grassland communities. Ecol Lett, 2007, 10: 401–410
Lemon PC. Forest ecology of ice storms. J Torrey Bot Club, 1961, 88: 21–29
Gill D. Snow damage to boreal mixed wood stands in northern Alberta. Forest Chron, 1974, 50: 70–73
Bond WJ, Midgley JJ. Ecology of sprouting in woody plants: the persistence niche. Trends in Ecol Evol, 2001, 16: 45–51
Espelta JM, Retana J, Habrouk A. Resprouting patterns after fire and response to stool cleaning of two coexisting Mediterranean oaks with contrasting leaf habits on two different sites. Forest Ecol Manag, 2003, 179: 401–414
Hodgkinson KC. Sprouting success of shrubs after fire: height-dependent relationships for different strategies. Oecologia. 1998, 115: 64–72
Bellingham PJ, Sparrow AD. Resprouting as a life history strategy in woody plant communities. Oikos. 2000, 89: 409–416
Luoga EJ, Witkowski E, Balkwill K. Differential utilization and ethnobotany of trees in Kitulanghalo forest reserve and surrounding communal lands, eastern Tanzania. Econ Bot, 2000, 54: 328–343
Allen DC. Ice Storm 1998 and the forests of the northeast. J Forest, 1998, 9: 32–40
Hyman. After the iceman cometh. Ala. Treas, 1985, 4: 10–11
Canham CD. Suppression and release during canopy recruitment in Fagus grandifolia. B Torrey Bot Club, 1990, 117: 1–7
Guo SH, Xue L. Effects of ice- snow damage one forest. Acta Eco Sin (in Chinese), 2012, 16: 5242–5253
Wu ZM, Li YD, Zhou GY, Chen BF. Abnormal litter fall and its ecological significance. Scientia Silvae Sinicae (in Chinese), 2008, 11: 28–31
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Contributed equally to this work
This article is published with open access at link.springer.com
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits use, duplication, adaptation, distribution, and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
About this article
Cite this article
Zhu, L., Zhou, T., Chen, B. et al. How does tree age influence damage and recovery in forests impacted by freezing rain and snow?. Sci. China Life Sci. 58, 472–479 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11427-014-4722-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11427-014-4722-2