Abstract
The rich multimedia-enhanced language content offered by modern commercial off-the-shelf games and students’ interest in playing such games has motivated efforts for seeking effective means to integrate them into the curriculum to enrich and enhance foreign language learning. Despite the general interest and appeal of game-enhanced learning in foreign language learning, there is a need for strategies for effective curriculum integration and empirical studies to test the effects of such interventions systematically. This study aims to contribute to this need by investigating the effectiveness of a ten-week-long game-enhanced language learning intervention on English foreign language learning. The study employed an embedded mixed methods design, including a controlled experiment and semi-structured interviews. The experiment group (n = 38) participated in a game-enhanced language learning program that was designed based on the Play Curricular activity Reflection Discussion (PCaRD) framework, whereas the control group (n = 38) received conventional instruction. Students took the TOEFL-ITP and L2 motivational self-system questionnaire before and after the intervention, whereas qualitative data were gathered via semi-structured interviews. The results indicated that both groups had significantly improved their scores, yet no significant differences were found in their post-test scores. The motivation questionnaire revealed a significant difference in cultural interest and attitudes to target community dimensions in favor of the game-enhanced condition. Moreover, the interview results indicated that participants had positive attitudes towards integrating commercial games into their language classrooms. Although the experimental group did not significantly outperform the control group, the game-enhanced intervention provided an equally effective learning experience with improved motivational attributes.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
All, A., Castellar, E. P. N., & Van Looy, J. (2016). Assessing the effectiveness of digital game-based learning: Best practices. Computers & Education, 92, 90–103.
Bakar, A., Inal, Y. & Cagiltay, K. (2006). Use of commercial games for educational purposes: Will today’s teacher candidates use them in the future? In E. Pearson & P. Bohman (Eds.), Proceedings of world conference on educational multimedia, hypermedia and telecommunications 2006 (pp. 1757–1762). AACE.
Ballou, K. (2009). Language learner experiences in an online virtual world. The JALT CALL Journal, 5(2), 61–70.
Barbour, M., Evans, M., & Toker, S. (2009). Making sense of video games: pre-service teachers struggle with this new medium. In K. McFerrin, R. Weber, R. Carlsen, & D. A. Willis (Eds.), Proceedings of the 20th international conference of the society of informational technology and teacher education (pp. 1367–1371). AACE.
Boland, D. (2021). The use of video games in teaching EFL students to write arguments (Order No. 28774898). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (2607731803). Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/use-video-games-teaching-efl-students-write/docview/2607731803/se-2?accountid=13014
Bourgonjon, J., De Grove, F., De Smet, C., Van Looy, J., Soetaert, R., & Valcke, M. (2013). Acceptance of game-based learning by secondary school teachers. Computers & Education, 67, 21–35.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101.
Byram, M., & Morgan, C. (1994). Teaching-and-learning language and culture. Multilingual Matters.
Calvo-Ferrer, J. R., & Belda-Medina, J. (2021). The effect of multiplayer video games on incidental and intentional L2 vocabulary learning: The case of among us. Multimodal Technologies and Interaction, 5(12), 80. https://doi.org/10.3390/mti5120080
Can, G., & Cagiltay, K. (2006). Turkish prospective teachers’ perceptions regarding the use of computer games with educational features. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 9(1), 308–321.
Chen, H. H.-J., Chen, M.-P., Chen, N.-S., & Yang, C. (2012). Pre-service teachers’ views on using adventure video games for language learning. In P. Felicia (Ed.), Proceedings of the 6th European Conference on Games Based Learning (pp. 125–130). Academic Publishing.
Chen, H.H.-J., & Yang, T.-Y.C. (2013). The impact of adventure video games on foreign language learning and the perceptions of learners. Interactive Learning Environments, 21(2), 129–141.
Chik, A. (2011). Learner autonomy development through digital gameplay. Digital Culture & Education, 3(1), 30–44.
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Csizér, K., & Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The internal structure of language learning motivation and its relationship with language choice and learning effort. The Modern Language Journal, 89(1), 19–36.
Dalton, G., & Devitt, A. (2016). Irish in a 3D world: Engaging primary school children. Language Learning & Technology, 20(1), 21–33.
de Freitas, S. (2006). Learning in immersive worlds: A review of game-based learning. Bristol, England: JISC. Retrieved April 21, 2022, from http://www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/programmes/elearninginnovation/gamingreport_v3.pdf
deHaan, J. (2005). Acquisition of Japanese as a foreign language through a baseball video game. Foreign Language Annals, 38(2), 278–282.
deHaan, J. (2011). Teaching and learning English through digital game projects. Digital Culture & Education, 3(1), 46–55.
deHaan, J. (2019). Teaching language and literacy with games: What? How? Why? Ludic Language Pedagogy, 1, 1–57.
deHaan, J. (2020a). “Game Terakoya class 1” walkthrough: Directing students’ post-game discussions, academic work and participatory work through goals, curriculum, materials and interactions. Ludic Language Pedagogy, 2, 41–69.
deHaan, J. (2020b). Game-based language teaching is vaporware (Part 2 of 2): It’s time to ship or shut down. Ludic Language Pedagogy, 2, 140–161.
deHaan, J., Reed, W. M., & Kuwanda, K. (2010). The effect of interactivity with a music video game on second language vocabulary recall. Language Learning & Technology, 14(2), 74–94.
Del Pozo, M. M., Gómez-Pablos, V. B., & Muñoz-Repiso, A. G. V. (2017). A quantitative approach to pre-service primary school teachers’ attitudes towards collaborative learning with video games: Previous experience with video games can make the difference. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 14(1), 1–18.
Dörnyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 78(3), 273–284.
Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self-system. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 9–42). Multilingual Matters.
Dörnyei, Z., & Csizér, K. (2002). Some dynamics of language attitudes and motivation: Results of a longitudinal nationwide survey. Applied Linguistics, 23(4), 421–462.
Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (Eds.). (2009). Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (Vol. 36). Multilingual Matters.
Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2011). Teaching and researching: Motivation (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315833750
Ebrahimzadeh, M. (2017). Readers, players, and watchers: EFL students’ vocabulary acquisition through digital video games. English Language Teaching, 10(2), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v10n2p1
Ebrahimzadeh, M., & Alavi, S. (2016). Motivating EFL students: E-Learning enjoyment as a predictor of vocabulary learning through digital video games. Cogent Education, 3(1), 1255400. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1255400
Ebrahimzadeh, M., & Alavi, S. (2017). The effect of digital video games on EFL students’ language learning motivation. Teaching English with Technology, 17(2), 87–112.
Foster, A., & Shah, M. (2011). PCaRD: Integrating games into classrooms. In D. Gouscos & M. Meimaris (Eds.), Proceedings of the 5th European Conference on Games Based Learning (pp. 183–194). Academic Publishing Limited.
Foster, A., & Shah, M. (2012). The play curricular activity reflection discussion model for game-based learning. Journal of Research in Technology Education, 47(2), 71–88.
Foster, A., & Shah, M. (2015). The ICCE framework: Framing learning experiences afforded by games. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 51(4), 369–395.
Galoyan, T., Shah, M. & Foster, A. (2017, January). Facilitating language use and communication in ESL/EFL classrooms through game-based learning. In Proceedings of the 2017 IAFOR international conference on language learning (pp. 19–31). Honolulu, Hawaii. Retrieved, April 15, 2022, from http://papers.iafor.org/wp-content/uploads/papers/iicllhawaii2017/IICLLHawaii2017_33049.pdf
Gardner, R. C. (2001). Integrative motivation and second language acquisition. In Z. Dörnyei & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and second language acquisition (pp. 1–19). University of Hawaii Press.
Gardner, R. C. (2020). The socio-educational model of second language acquisition. In M. Lamb, K. Csizér, A. Henry & S. Ryan (Eds.), Palgrave Macmillan handbook of motivation for language learning (pp. 21–37). Palgrave.
Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. Palgrave Macmillian.
Gee, J. P. (2005). Learning by design: Good video games as learning machines. E Learning and Digital Media, 2(1), 5–16.
Gee, J. P. (2007). Good video games+ good learning: Collected essays on video games, learning, and literacy. Peter Lang.
Gee, J. P. (2008). Learning and games. In K. Salen (Ed.), The ecology of games: Connecting youth, games, and learning (pp. 21–40). MIT Press.
Godwin-Jones, R. (2019). Riding the digital wilds: Learner autonomy and informal language learning. Language Learning & Technology, 23(1), 8–25.
Gros, B. (2007). Digital games in education: The design of games-based learning environments. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 40(1), 23–38.
Hitosugi, C. I., Schmidt, M., & Hayashi, K. (2014). Digital game-based learning (DGBL) in the L2 classroom: The impact of the UN’s off-the-shelf videogame, Food Force, on learner affect and vocabulary retention. Calico Journal, 31(1), 19–39.
Islam, M., Lamb, M., & Chambers, G. (2013). The L2 motivational self-system and national interest: A Pakistani perspective. System, 41(2), 231–244.
Knight, S. W. P., Marean, L., & Sykes, J. M. (2019). Gaming and informal language learning. In M. Dressman & R. Sadler (Eds.), Blackwell handbooks in linguistics. The handbook of informal language learning (pp. 101–115). Wiley-Blackwell.
Kongmee, I., Strachan, R., Pickard, A., & Montgomery, C. (2012). A case study of using online communities and virtual environment in massively multiplayer role-playing games (MMORPGs) as a learning and teaching tool for second language learners. International Journal of Virtual and Personal Learning Environments, 3(4), 1–15.
Krippendorff, K. (2004). Reliability in content analysis: Some common misconceptions and recommendations. Human Communication Research, 30(3), 411–433.
Lu, F. C., & Chang, B. (2016). Role-play game-enhanced english for a specific-purpose vocabulary-acquisition framework. Educational Technology & Society, 19(2), 367–377.
Magid, M. (2011). A validation and application of the l2 motivational self system among chinese learners of english (Order No. U578786). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (1316074958). Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/validation-application-l2-motivational-self/docview/1316074958/se-2?accountid=13014
Magid, M., & Chan, L. (2012). Motivating English learners by helping them visualise their ideal L2 self: Lessons from two motivational programmes. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 6(2), 113–125.
Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41(9), 954.
McNeil, L. (2020). Implementing digital game-enhanced pedagogy: Supportive and impeding language awareness and discourse participation phenomena. ReCALL, 32(1), 106–124.
Medina, E. (2005). Digital games: A motivational perspective. In Proceedings of the 2005 DiGRA international conference: Changing views: Worlds in play. Retrieved June 15, 2020, from http://www.digra.org/wp-content/uploads/digital-library/06276.30561.pdf
Miller, M., & Hegelheimer, V. (2006). The SIMs meet ESL Incorporating authentic computer simulation games into the language classroom. Interactive Technology and Smart Education, 3(4), 311–328.
Norton, B. (2001). Non-participation imagined communities and the language classroom. In M. Breen (Ed.), Learner contributions to language learning: New directions in research (pp. 159–171). Pearson Education.
Özgür, S., & Caner, M. (2022). Gamers’ foreign language learning motivation. Gazi Üniversitesi Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 1(1), 431–462.
Pavlenko, A. (2014). The bilingual mind: And what it tells us about language and thought. Cambridge University Press.
Peterson, M. (2006). Learner interaction management in an avatar and chat-based virtual world. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 19(1), 79–103.
Peterson, M. (2010). Massively multiplayer online role-playing games as arenas for second language learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 23(5), 429–439.
Peterson, M. (2012). Language learner interaction in a massively multiplayer online role-playing game. In H. Reinders (Ed.), Digital games in language learning and teaching (pp. 70–92). Palgrave Macmillan.
Prensky, M. (2003). Digital game-based learning. ACM Computers in Entertainment., 1(1), 1–4.
Punyalert, S. (2017). Game-enhanced simulation as an approach to experiential learning in business English (Order No. 10618651). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (1951781269). Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/game-enhanced-simulation-as-approach-experiential/docview/1951781269/se-2?accountid=13014
Purushotma, R. (2005). Commentary: You’re not studying, you’re just…. Language Learning & Technology, 9(1), 80–96.
Rad, H. S. (2021). Effect of PCaRD DGB flipped learning on EFL learners’ grammar skill. Journal of Asia TEFL, 18(2), 544–558.
Ranalli, J. (2008). Learning english with the sims: Exploiting authentic computer simulation games for L2 learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 21(5), 441–455.
Rankin, Y. A., Gold, R., & Gooch, B. (2006). 3D role-playing games as language learning tools. In E. Gröller & L. Szirmay-Kalos (Eds.), Proceedings of EuroGraphics 2006 (Vol. 25, pp. 33–38). ACM.
Rankin, Y. A., Morrison, D., McNeal, M., Gooch, B., & Shute, M. W. (2009). Time will tell: In-game social interactions that facilitate second language acquisition. In R. Michael Young (Ed.), Proceedings of the 4th international conference on foundations of digital games (pp.161–168). ACM.
Rama, P. S., Black, R. W., Van Es, E., & Warschauer, M. (2012). Affordances for second language learning in World of Warcraft. ReCALL, 24(3), 322–338.
Reinders, H., & Wattana, S. (2014). Can I say something? The effects of digital game play on willingness to communicate. Language Learning & Technology, 18(2), 101–123.
Reinhardt, J. (2013). Digital game-mediated foreign language teaching and learning: Myths, realities and opportunities. In M. Derivry-Plard, P. Faure, & C. Brudermann (Eds.), Apprendre les langues à l’université au 21ème siècle, (pp. 161–178). Riveneuve.
Reinhardt, J. (2019). Gameful second and foreign language teaching and learning: Theory, research, and practice. Palgrave Macmillan.
Reinhardt, J., & Sykes, J. M. (2012). Conceptualizing digital game-mediated L2 learning and pedagogy: Game-enhanced and game-based research and practice In H. Reinders (Ed.) Digital games in language learning and teaching (pp. 32–49). Palgrave Macmillan.
Richards, J. C., & Burns, A. (2012). Pedagogy and practice in second language teaching: An overview of the issues. In A. Burns & J. C. Richards (Eds.), The Cambridge guide to pedagogy and practice in second language teaching (pp. 1–12). Cambridge University Press.
Ryu, D. (2013). Play to learn, learn to play: Language learning through gaming vulture. ReCALL, 25(2), 286–301.
Shaffer, D. W., Squire, K. R., Halverson, R., & Gee, J. P. (2005). Video games and the future of learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 87(2), 105–111.
Shahriarpour, N. (2014). On the effect of playing digital games on Iranian intermediate EFL. Learners’ motivation toward learning English vocabularies. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 98, 1738–1743.
Shintaku, K. (2018). Game design interaction in digital gameplay and language teaching and learning. In B. Zou & M. Thomas (Eds.), Handbook of research on integrating technology into contemporary language learning and teaching (pp. 449–475). IGI Global.
Shintaku, K. (2019). Game-mediated activities in JFL classrooms: Considerations and issues in learning, teaching and implementation. In E. Zimmerman & A. McMeekin (Eds.), Technology-supported learning in and out of the Japanese language classroom: Advances in pedagogy, teaching, and research (pp. 342–379). Multilingual Matters.
Squire, K. (2002). Cultural framing of computer/video games. Game Studies: The International Journal of Computer Game Research, 1(2), 1–13.
Squire, K. (2006). From content to context: Videogames as designed experience. Educational Researcher, 35(8), 19–29.
Squire, K. (2008). Video games and education: Designing learning systems for an interactive age. Educational Technology, 48(2), 17.
Steel, A. (2020). LEVEL UP!: Japanese second language acquisition in the classroom through video games (Order No. 27997207). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (2437410973). Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/level-up-japanese-second-language-acquisition/docview/2437410973/se-2?accountid=13014
Sundqvist, P. (2009). The impact of spare time activities on students’ English language skills. In S. Granath, B. Bihl, & S. Wenno (Eds.), Vagar till Sprak-Ochlitteratur (pp. 63–76). Karlstad University Press.
Sundqvist, P. (2019). Commercial-off-the-shelf games in the digital wild and L2 learner vocabulary. Language Learning & Technology, 23(1), 87–113.
Sykes, J. M. (2018). Digital games and language teaching and learning. Foreign Language Annals, 51(1), 219–224.
Sykes, J., Reinhardt, J., & Thorne, S. L. (2010). Multiplayer digital games as sites for research and practice. In F. Hult (Ed.), Directions and prospects for educational linguistics (pp. 117–136). Springer.
Sylvén, L. K., & Sundqvist, P. (2012). Gaming as extramural English L2 learning and L2 proficiency among young learners. ReCALL, 24(3), 302–321.
Taguchi, T., Magid, M., & Papi, M. (2009). The l2 motivational self system among Japanese, Chinese and Iranian learners of English: A comparative study. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 66–97). Multilingual Matters.
Thorne, S. L. (2008). Transcultural communication in open internet environments and massively multiplayer online games. In N. Hornberger & N. Van Duesen-Scholl (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education Volume 4: Second and Foreign language education (pp. 325–336). Springer.
Thorne, S. L. (2012). The semiotic ecology and linguistic complexity of an online game world. ReCALL, 24(3), 279–301.
Thorne, S. L., Black, R. W., & Sykes, J. M. (2009). Second language use, socialization, and learning in Internet interest communities and online gaming. The Modern Language Journal, 93, 802–821.
Tort Calvo, E. (2015). Language Learning Motivation: The L2 Motivational Self System and its Relationship with Learning Achievement. Unpublieshed Master’s Thesis, Universitat Autònoma Barcelona.
Ushioda, E. (2001). Language learning at university: Exploring the role of motivational thinking. In Z. Dörnyei & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and second language acquisition (pp. 99–125). University of Hawaii Press.
Van Eck, R. (2006). Digital game-based learning: It’s not just the digital natives who are restless. EDUCAUSE Review, 41(2), 16.
Van Eck, R. (2008). COTS in the classroom: A teacher’s guide to integrating commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) games. In R. Ferdig (Ed.), Handbook of research on effective electronic gaming in education (pp. 179–199). Idea Group.
Vandercruysse, S., Vandewaetere, M., Cornillie, F., & Clarebout, G. (2013). Competition and students’ perceptions in a game-based language learning environment. Educational Technology Research and Development, 61(6), 927–950.
Vlachopoulos, D., & Makri, A. (2017). The effect of games and simulations on higher education: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 14(1), 1–33.
Wang, C., & Winstead, L. (2016). Handbook of research on foreign language education in the digital age. IGI Global.
Wehner, A. K., Gump, A. W., & Downey, S. (2011). The effects of Second Life on the motivation of undergraduate students learning a foreign language. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 24(3), 277–289.
Wu, C. J., Chen, G.-D., & Huang, C. W. (2014). Using digital board games for genuine communication in EFL classrooms. Educational Technology Research and Development, 62(2), 209–226.
Yudintseva, A. (2015). Game-enhanced second language vocabulary acquisition strategies: A systematic review. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 3, 101–109.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank to School of Foreign Languages at TOBB University of Economy & Technology for their support and approval to conduct this study with their students.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Aydın, S.M., Çakır, N.A. The effects of a game-enhanced learning intervention on foreign language learning. Education Tech Research Dev 70, 1809–1841 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-022-10141-9
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-022-10141-9