Abstract
Purpose
The objective of this research was to evaluate the appropriateness of using life cycle assessment (LCA) for new applications that incorporate emerging materials and involve site-specific scenarios. Cradle-to-grave impacts of copper-treated lumber used in a raised garden bed are assessed to identify key methodological challenges and recommendations applying LCA for such purposes as well as to improve sustainability within this application.
Methods
The functional unit is a raised garden bed measuring 6.67 board feet (bf) in volume over a period of 20 years. The garden beds are made from softwood lumber such as southern yellow pine. The two treatment options considered were alkaline copper quaternary and micronized copper quaternary. Ecoinvent 2.2 provided certain life cycle inventory (LCI) data needed for the production of each garden bed, while additional primary and secondary sources were accessed to supplement the LCI.
Results and discussion
Primary data were not available for all relevant inventory requirements, as was anticipated, but enough secondary data were gathered to conduct a screening-level LCA on these raised garden bed applications. A notable finding was that elimination of organic solvent could result in a more sustainable lumber treatment product. Conclusions are limited by data availability and key methodological challenges facing LCA and emerging materials.
Conclusions
Although important data and methodological challenges facing LCA and emerging materials exist, this LCA captured material and process changes that were important drivers of environmental impacts. LCA methods need to be amended to reflect the properties of emerging materials that determine their fate, transport, and impacts to the environment and health. It is not necessary that all recommendations come to light before LCA is applied in the context of emerging materials. Applications of such materials involve many inputs beyond emerging materials that are already properly assessed by LCA. Therefore, LCA should be used in its current state to enhance the decision-making context for the sustainable development of these applications.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Ecoinvent inventory entries often contained European averaged data and was used as surrogate data in lieu of actual US facility data. Such conditions were assumed valid for this study as it provides some consistency with existing LCA studies.
Actual formulations may vary, but are generally represented in that proportion.
References
AWPA (2011) Standard for alkaline copper quat type D (ACD-D)
AWPA (2013) AWPA technical information. Retrieved from American Wood Protection Association. http://www.awpa.com/references/homeowner.asp
Bare J (2006) Risk assessment and life-cycle assessment (LCIA) for human health cancerous and noncancerous emissions: integrated and complementary with consistency within the US EPA. Human Ecolog Risk Assess 12(3):493–509
Bare J (2011) TRACI 2.0: The tool for the reduction and assessment of chemical and other environmental impacts 2.0. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, 13(5), 687-696
Bolin C, Smith S (2011) Life cycle assessment of ACQ-treated lumber with comparison to wood plastic composite decking. J Clean Prod 19(6–7):620–629
Cho C-L, Lin Y-L, Shen J-Y, Lin L-C (2009) Leachability of commercial ammoniacal copper quat and micronized copper quat used in Taiwan 24(3):183–196
Cookson LJ, Creffield JW, McCarthy KJ, Scown DK (2010) Trials on the efficacy of MCQ in Australia. Forest Prodcuts Society
Darlington T, Neigh A, Spencer M, Nguyen O, Oldensburg S (2008) Nanoparticle characteristics affecting environmental fate and transport through soil. Environ Toxicol Chem 28(6):1191–1199
Diamond M, Gandhi N, Adams W, Atherton J, Bhavsar S, Bulle C, Guinee J (2009) The clearwater consensus: the estimation of metal hazard in freshwater. Int J Life Cycle Assess 15(2):143–147
Evans P, Matsunaga H, Kiguchi M (2008) Large-scale application of nanotechnology for wood protection. Nat Nanotechnol 3:577
Franklin NM, Rogers NJ, Apte SC, Batley GE, Gadd GE, Casey PS (2007) Comparative toxicity of nanoparticulate ZnO, bulk ZnO, and ZnCl2 to a freshwater microalga (P. subcapitata)—the importance of particle solubility. Environ Sci Technol 41(24):8484–8490
Freeman M, McIntyre C (2008) A comprehensive review of copper based wood preservatives. Forest Prod J 58(11):6
Gandhi N, Diamond M, Huikibregts MA, Guinee JB, Peijnenburg WJ, van de Meent D (2011) Implications of considering metal bioavailability in estimates of freshwater ecotoxicity—examination of two case studies. Int J Life Cycle Assess 16(8):774–787
Gao J, Youn S, Hovspyan A, Llaneza VL, Wang Y, Bitton G, Bonzongo JC (2009) Dispersion and toxicity of selected manufactured nanomaterials in natural river water samples: effects of water chemical composition. Environ Sci Technol 43(9):3322–3328
Gavankar S, Suh S, Keller A (2012) Life cycle assessment at nanoscale: review and recommendations. Int J Life Cycle Assess 17(3):295–303
Georgia-Pacific Treated Lumber LLC (2009) Material safety data sheet (ACQ pressure treated lumber). Atlanta, Georgia
Giede W, Rutzen L (1981) US patent no. 4,275,235
Goedkoop M, Heijungs R, Huijbregts M, De Schryver A, Strujs J, van Zelm R (2012) A life cycle impact assessment method which comprises harmonised category indicators at the midpoint and the endpoint level. ReCiPe 2008. Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment, Amersfoort, the Netherlands
Great Southern Wood Preserving Inc. (2003) Material safety data sheet (ACQ treated wood). Abbeville, Alabama
Grieger K, Laurent A, Miseljic M, Christensen F, Baun A, Olsen S (2012) Analysis of current research addressing complementary use of LCA and RA for ENMs—have lessons been learned from previous experience with chemicals. J Nanopart Res 14(7):1
Griffitt R, Weil R, Hyndman K, Denslow N, Powers K, Taylor D, Barber D (2007) Exposure to copper nanoparticles causes gill injury and acute lethality in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Environ Sci Technol 41(23):8178–8186
Griffitt R, Luo J, Gao J, Bonzongo JC, Barber DS (2008) Effects of particle composition and species on toxicity of metallic nanomaterials in aquatic organisms. Environ Toxicol Chem 27(9):1972–1978
Hischier R, Walser T (2012) Life cycle assessment of engineered nanomaterials: state of the art and strategies to overcome existing gaps. Sci Total Environ 425:271–282
Hischier R, Althaus HJ, Bauer C, Busser S, Doka G, Frishknecht R, Simons A (2010) Ecoinvent data v2.2. Ecoinvent Centre Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories, Dubendorf, CH. www.ecoinvent.org
Hristovski KD, Westerhoff PK, Posner JD (2011) Octanol–water distribution of engineered nanomaterials. J Environ Sci Health 46(6):636–647
ICC (2010) ESR-1980. ICC-ES evaluation report. International Code Council
International Standard Organization (2006) ISO 14044 environmental management—LCA—requirements and guidelines. ISO, Geneva
Jafvert CT, Kilkarni PP (2008) Buckminsterfullerene’s (C60) octanol–water partition coefficient (K ow) and aqueous solubility. Environ Sci Technol 42(16):5945–5950
Klaine S, Fernandes T, Handy R, Lyon D, Mahendra S, McLaughlin M, Batley G (2008) Nanomaterials in the environment: behavior, fate, bioavailability and effects. Environ Toxicol Chem 27(9):1825–1851
Kulkarni PP, Jafvert CT (2007) Solubility of C60 in solvent mixtures. Environ Sci Technol 42(3):845–851
Leach R, Zhang J (2010) US patent no. 7,674,481
Lebow S (1996) Leaching of wood preservative components and their mobility in the environment. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington
Lowry G, Casman E (2009) Nanomaterial transport, transformation and fate in the environment. In: Nanomaterials risks and benefits. Springer, The Netherlands, pp 125–137
Lux Research Inc. (2004) Statement of findings: sizing nanotechnology’s value chain. AltAssets. http://www.altassets.com/pdfs/sizingnanotechnologysvaluechain.pdf
Matsunaga H, Kiguchi M, Evans PD (2009) Microdistribution of copper-carbonate and iron oxide nanoparticles in treated wood. J Nanopart Res 11(5):1087–1098
Mudunkotuwa I, Pettibone J, Grassian V (2012) Environmental implications of nanoparticle aging in the processing and fate of copper-based nanomaterials. Environ Sci Technol 46(13):7001–7010
Osmose (2010a) Material safety data sheet (Naturewood treated wood). Buffalo, New York
Osmose (2010b) Material safety data sheet (Smartsense treated wood). Buffalo, New York
Rosenbaum RK, Bachmann TM et al (2008) USEtox: the UNEP-SETAC toxicity model—recommended characterization factors for human toxicity and freshwater ecotoxicity in life cycle impact assessment. Int J Life Cycle Assess 13(7):532–546
Scientific Applications International Corporation (SAIC) (2006) Life cycle assessment: Principles and practice. Cincinnati: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Scientific Certification Systems and FFK Ltd. (2009) life cycle assessment: a comparison of alkaline copper quaternary (ACQ) and micronized copper quaternary (MCQ) lumber treatment chemicals
Shatkin JA (2008) Informing environmental decision making by combining life cycle assessment and risk analysis. J Ind Ecol 12(3):278–281
Stirling R, Drummond J, Zhang J, Ziobro R (2008) Micro-distribution of micronized copper in southern pine. International Research Group on Wood Protection
Townsend T, Dubey ES (2010) Simulated landfills for assessing the leachate quality impacts from Co-453 disposal of hazardous constituents. State University Systems of Florida, Gainesville
U.S. Congressional Office of Technology Assessment (1988) Copper: technology and competitiveness. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington
U.S. EPA (1994) Extraction and beneficiation of ores and minerals: copper (volume 4). Washington
U.S. EPA (2011) Chromated copper arsenate. Retrieved from U.S. EPA: 460. http://www.epa.gov/oppad001/reregistration/cca/
Union Processing Inc. (2012). Conversation with Bob Freeman of Union Processing Inc. Production of micronized copper oxide. http://www.unionprocess.com
USEtox (2012) Support of USEtox model. USEtox.org. http://www.usetox.org/Support.aspx
Walker LE (1996) US patent no. 5,523,487
Wang L, Kamden PD (2011) Copper migration from micronized copper preservative treated wood in soil contact. Queenstown, NZ
Acknowledgments
The present work benefited from the input and guidance from many people at the U.S. EPA as well as Christopher Bolin for supplying certain inventory data.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Responsible editor: Greg Thoma
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Tsang, M., Meyer, D., Hawkins, T. et al. Life cycle assessment for emerging materials: case study of a garden bed constructed from lumber produced with three different copper treatments. Int J Life Cycle Assess 19, 1345–1355 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-014-0726-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-014-0726-1