Abstract
The last decade increasing attention to litter accumulation in the marine environment revealed the issue of the terrestrial fluxes of plastic pollution into the oceans. However, limited studies investigate the macro-litter abundance and composition particularly in freshwater ecosystems and the adjusted coastal environment. In this study, we conducted an empirical analysis of anthropogenic litter (AL) in two freshwater streams and their estuaries of Lesvos island (Greece), strongly affected by the waste mismanagement in the Moria refugee camp. A total of 1,622 litter items were collected from five sites during the field campaign between the 3rd and 6th of June 2019. Among these, artificial polymer items (mainly drink bottles, single-use plastic bags, cutlery, and trays) irrespective of the site location constituted the major part ranging from 46 to 91% of total AL by mass. Drink bottles and plastic cutlery are found in higher percentage at Moria camp river and its estuary, while packaging and bag litter are more abundant at upstream sites. The operation of the camp has increased the AL abundance 13 times more than the reference site, causing severe threat to human health and to freshwater and marine environment. It is therefore important to improve the waste management system at (inter)national (change in production and packaging policy) and local scale (introducing sustainable solutions to refugee camp design) by promoting recycling and circular economy projects to diminish AL pollution.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article [and its supplementary information files].
Abbreviations
- AL:
-
Anthropogenic litter
- MSFD:
-
Marine Strategy Framework Directive
- PET:
-
Polyethylene terephthalate
- SUP:
-
Single-use plastic
References
Al-Khatib IA, Monou M, Abu Zahra ASF, Shaheen HQ, Kassinos D (2010) Solid waste characterization, quantification and management practices in developing countries. a case study: Nablus District - Palestine. Journal of Environmental Management 91(5):1131–1138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.01.003
Baini M, Fossi MC, Galli M, Caliani I, Campani T, Finoia MG, Panti C (2018) Abundance and characterization of microplastics in the coastal waters of Tuscany (Italy): the application of the MSFD monitoring protocol in the Mediterranean Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin 133(August):543–552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.06.016
Besseling E, Quik JTK, Sun M, Koelmans AA (2017) Fate of nano- and microplastic in freshwater systems : a modeling study. Environmental Pollution 220:540–548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.10.001
Browne MA, Crump P, Niven SJ, Teuten E, Tonkin A, Galloway T, Thompson R (2011) Accumulation of microplastic on shorelines worldwide: sources and sinks. Environmental Science and Technology 45(21):9175–9179. https://doi.org/10.1021/es201811s
Burns EE, Boxall ABA (2018) Microplastics in the aquatic environment: evidence for or against adverse impacts and major knowledge gaps. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 37(11):2776–2796. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.4268
Castañeda RA, Suncica A, Anouk Simard M, Ricciardi A (2014) Microplastic pollution in St. Lawrence river sediments. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 71(12):1767–1771. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfas-2014-0281
Castro-Jiménez J, González-Fernández D, Fornier M, Schmidt N, Sempéré R (2019) Macro-litter in surface waters from the Rhone river: plastic pollution and loading to the NW Mediterranean Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin 146(February):60–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.05.067
Chamas A, Moon H, Zheng J, Qiu Y, Tabassum T, Jang JH, Abu-Omar M, Scott SL, Suh S (2020) Degradation rates of plastics in the environment. ACS Sustainable Chemistry and Engineering 8(9):3494–3511. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b06635
Chen CL (2015)Regulation and management of marine litter. Marine Anthropogenic Litter. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_15
Clause AG, Celestian AJ, Pauly GB (2021) Plastic ingestion by freshwater turtles: a review and call to action. Scientific Reports 11(1):5672. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-84846-x
Derraik JGB (2002) The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Marine Pollution Bulletin. Pergamon 44:842–852. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0025-326X(02)00220-5
Di-Méglio N, Campana I (2017) Floating macro-litter along the Mediterranean French coast: composition, density, distribution and overlap with cetacean range. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 118:155–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.02.026
Eerkes-Medrano D, Thompson RC, Aldridge DC (2015) Microplastics in freshwater systems: a review of the emerging threats, identification of knowledge gaps and prioritisation of research needs. Water Research. Elsevier Ltd 75:63–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.02.012
Emmerik V.T. and Schwarz A. 2019. Plastic debris in rivers. WIREs Water. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1398
Gall SC, Thompson RC (2015) The impact of debris on marine life. Marine Pollution Bulletin 92(1–2):170–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.12.041
Gasperi J, Dris R, Bonin T, Rocher V, Tassin B (2014) Assessment of floating plastic debris in surface water along the Seine River. Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex : 1987) 195:163–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.09.001
González-Fernández, D., Hanke, G., and the RiLON network, Floating macro litter in European Rivers - Top Items, EUR 29383 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2018, ISBN 978-92-79-96373-5, doi:https://doi.org/10.2760/316058, JRC108172
Guerranti C, Cannas S, Scopetani C, Fastelli P, Cincinelli A, Renzi M (2017) Plastic litter in aquatic environments of Maremma Regional Park (Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy): contribution by the Ombrone River and levels in marine sediments. Marine Pollution Bulletin 117:366–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.02.021
Hoellein T, Rojas M, Pink A, Gasior J, Kelly J (2014) Anthropogenic litter in urban freshwater ecosystems: distribution and microbial interactions. PLoS ONE 9(6):e98485. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0098485
Horton AA, Svendsen C, Williams RJ, Spurgeon DJ, Lahive E (2017) Large microplastic particles in sediments of tributaries of the river Thames, UK – Abundance, Sources and Methods for Effective Quantification. Marine Pollution Bulletin 114(1):218–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.09.004
Ivar do Sul JA, Costa MF, Silva-Cavalcanti JS, Araújo MCB (2014) Plastic debris retention and exportation by a mangrove forest patch. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 78:252–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.11.011
Jahre M, Kembro J, Adjahossou A, Altay N (2018) Approaches to the Design of Refugee Camps. Journal of Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management 8(3):323–345. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHLSCM-07-2017-0034
Jambeck JR, Farfour WM (2011) “Characterization of individual marine debris items by 5th International Marine Debris Conference.” In .
Jambeck JR, Geyer R, Wilcox C, Siegler TR, Perryman M, Andrady A, Narayan R, Law KL (2015) Plastic waste input from land into the ocean. Science 347(6223):768–771
Katsouli A, Stasinakis AS (2019) Production of municipal solid waste and sewage in European refugees’ camps: the case of Lesvos, Greece. Waste Management 86:49–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.01.036
Kim TK (2017) Understanding one-way anova using conceptual figures. Korean Journal of Anesthesiology 70(1):22–26. https://doi.org/10.4097/kjae.2017.70.1.22
Lechner A, Keckeis H, Lumesberger-Loisl F, Zens B, Krusch R, Tritthart M, Glas M, Schludermann E (2014) The Danube so colourful: a potpourri of plastic litter outnumbers fish larvae in Europe’s second largest river. Environmental Pollution 188:177–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.02.006
Lwanga H, Esperanza HG, Gooren H, Peters P, Salánki T, van der Ploeg M, Besseling E, Koelmans AA, Geissen V (2017) Incorporation of microplastics from litter into burrows of Lumbricus terrestris. Environmental Pollution 220(January):523–531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.09.096
Mani T, Hauk A, Walter U, Burkhardt-Holm P (2015) Microplastics profile along the Rhine River. Scientific Reports 5(December):1–7. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep17988
Matrai Ildi, Ourania Tzoraki (2018) “Assessing stakeholder perceptions regarding floods in Kalloni and Agia Paraskevi, Lesvos Greece.” In 3rd International Congress on Applied Ichthyology & Aquatic Environment, edited by Panagiotis; Karapanagiotidis and Ioannis; Berillis, 818–20. Volos.
McCormick AR, Hoellein TJ (2016) Anthropogenic litter is abundant, diverse, and mobile in urban rivers: insights from cross-ecosystem analyses using ecosystem and community ecology tools. Limnology and Oceanography 61(5):1718–1734. https://doi.org/10.1002/lno.10328
Miller RZ, Watts AJR, Winslow BO, Galloway TS, Barrows APW (2017) Mountains to the sea: river study of plastic and non-plastic microfiber pollution in the Northeast USA. Marine Pollution Bulletin 124(1):245–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.07.028
Morritt D, Stefanoudis PV, Pearce D, Crimmen OA, Clark PF (2014) Plastic in the Thames : a river runs through it. Marine Pollution Bulletin 78(1–2):196–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.10.035
Öko-Institut EV (2011) “Assessing the risk of marine litter accumulation in estuarine habitats.” Institut Für Angewandte Ökologie. Vol. 144. Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.04.060
Pazos RS, Maiztegui T, Colautti DC, Paracampo AH, Gómez N (2017) Microplastics in gut contents of coastal freshwater fish from Río de la Plata estuary. Marine Pollution Bulletin 122(1–2):85–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.06.007
Rakshit Amit (2018) “Conception on one-way ANOVA technique with the assist of illustration.”
Robin. 2012. “Roman Aqueduct - Moria .” Molyvos. 2012. http://www.molyvos.eu/activities/ancient-sites/roman-aquaduct/.
Saidan MN, Drais AA, Al-Manaseer E (2017) Solid waste composition analysis and recycling evaluation: Zaatari Syrian Refugees Camp, Jordan. Waste Management 61:58–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.12.026
Salem M, Raab K, Wagner R (2020) Solid waste management: the disposal behavior of poor people living in Gaza Strip refugee camps. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 153:104550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.104550
Schirinzi GF, Köck-Schulmeyer M, Cabrera M, González-Fernández D, Hanke G, Farré M, Barceló D (2020) Riverine anthropogenic litter load to the Mediterranean Sea near the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona, Spain. Science of the Total Environment 714(April):136807. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136807
Schuyler Q, Hardesty BD, Wilcox C, Townsend K (2014) Global analysis of anthropogenic debris ingestion by sea turtles. Conservation Biology 28(1):129–139. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12126
Simha P, Mutiara ZZ, Gaganis P (2017) Vulnerability assessment of water resources and adaptive management approach for Lesvos Island, Greece. Sustainable Water Resources Management. 3:283–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-017-0095-6
Skanavis C, Kounani A (2016) “The environmental impacts of the refugees’ settlements at Lesvos Island.” https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308019195
Tzoraki O, Monioudi IN, Velegrakis AF, Moutafis N, Pavlogeorgatos G, Kitsiou D (2018) Resilience of touristic island beaches under sea level rise: a methodological framework. Coastal Management. 46:78–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/08920753.2018.1426376
Tzoraki O, Zkeri E, Lasithiotakis M, Sinioros P (2020) Trace metals’ contamination in water and soils in the vicinity of a small–medium waste electrical and electronic equipment recycling plant. Environmental Progress and Sustainable Energy 39(3). https://doi.org/10.1002/ep.13343
UNEP-MAP. 2015. “Marine litter assessment in the Mediterranean.” Athens, Greece.
Wagner, Martin, Christian Scherer, Diana Alvarez-muñoz, Nicole Brennholt, Xavier Bourrain, Sebastian Buchinger, Elke Fries, et al. 2014. “Microplastics in freshwater ecosystems : what we know and what we need to know,” 1–9.
Waller, Catherine L, Huw J Griffiths, Claire M Waluda, Sally E Thorpe, Iván Loaiza, Bernabé Moreno, Cesar O Pacherres, and Kevin A Hughes. 2017. “Microplastics in the antarctic marine system: an emerging area of research.” https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.03.283.
Waring RH, Harris RM, Mitchell SC (2018) Plastic contamination of the food chain: a threat to human health? Maturitas 115:64–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2018.06.010
Williams AT, Simmons SL (1996) The degradation of plastic litter in rivers: implications for beaches. Journal of Coastal Conservation 2(1):63–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02743038
Williams AT, Rangel-Buitrago NG, Anfuso G, Cervantes O, Botero CM (2016) Litter impacts on scenery and tourism on the Colombian North Caribbean Coast. Tourism Management 55(August):209–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2016.02.008
Zhang H (2017) Transport of microplastics in coastal seas. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 199:74–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2017.09.032
Acknowledgements
This work is conducted as a research internship at the University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Greece, under Erasmus Mundus Joint Master’s Degree in Environmental Sciences, Policy and Management (MESPOM) program, and the SCIREA horizon 2020 project. Special thanks to MESPOM fellows (David, Alicia, Ginevra, Natalie, and Tim) for their precious time and help in AL collection.
Funding
This research is part of a research internship at the University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Greece, under Erasmus Mundus Joint Master Degree in Environmental Sciences, Policy and Management (MESPOM).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation and data collection were performed by Shiza Aslam and Ourania Tzoraki; methodology was designed by Shiza Aslam and Evangelia Krasakopoulou; and analysis was performed by Shiza Aslam. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Shiza Aslam, and review and editing were done by Ourania Tzoraki and Evangelia Krasakopoulou. All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Aslam, S., Tzoraki, O. & Krasakopoulou, E. Anthropogenic litter in freshwater bodies and their estuaries: an empirical analysis in Lesvos, Greece. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29, 16563–16575 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16793-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16793-z