Abstract
In order to fulfil the growing need to replace fossil fuels, investigations exploring the production of biodiesel from agricultural biomass have gained attention. In this study, biodiesels were produced from Madhuca longifolia and Jatropha curcas by means of pre-treatment followed by a two-step acid-base homogeneous catalyst method. These biodiesels were blended with diesel at different percentages. The efficacy of the process was examined using various characterization methods while the efficiency of the produced biodiesels was examined by their engine performance and emission tests. Both Madhuca and Jatropha-based biodiesels exhibited physiochemical properties like that of diesel. Biodiesels were produced by pre-treating with orthophosphoric acid and toluene. The second step involves acid esterification, followed by base transesterification. Raman spectra exhibited C=O stretching at 1725 cm−1 indicating conversion of Madhuca and Jatropha oil into biodiesel. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed a strong presence of fatty acid profile and triglyceride ester linkage at 1744 cm−1. Ultraviolet-visible (UV) spectra confirmed the presence of conjugated dienes in the extracted biodiesels. UV absorbance at 320 nm decreased linearly with blend percentage. 1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) confirmed the presence of methyl ester moiety at 3.6 δ (ppm) and methoxy carbon at 51.2 δ in biodiesel, distinguishing it from diesel. In the engine performance tests, the variations of brake specific fuel consumption, exhaust gas temperature and brake thermal efficiency versus brake power were studied. The emission tests of different blends were done in terms of carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide and unburnt hydrocarbon. The Jatropha biodiesel exhibited lower mean brake specific fuel consumption, exhaust gas temperature, emitted less carbon monoxide and unburnt hydrocarbon than Madhuca biodiesel. The average decrease in brake thermal efficiency was more in Jatropha biodiesel than Madhuca biodiesel. The present work uses for the first time treatment of ortho phosphoric acid and toluene to produce biodiesel followed by a two-step homogeneous acid-base catalyst method, drastically reducing free fatty acid value.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- ASTM:
-
American Society for Testing Materials
- BSFC:
-
Brake specific fuel consumption
- BTE:
-
Brake thermal efficiency
- CN:
-
Cetane number
- 13C NMR:
-
Carbon nuclear magnetic resonance
- EGT:
-
Exhaust gas temperature
- FAAE:
-
Fatty acid alkyl ester
- FAME:
-
Fatty acid methyl ester
- FTIR:
-
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
- FT-NIR:
-
Fourier transform near infrared spectroscopy
- FFA:
-
Free fatty acid
- J60:
-
60% Jatropha biodiesel with diesel
- J80:
-
80% Jatropha biodiesel with diesel
- J85:
-
85% Jatropha biodiesel with diesel
- J90:
-
90% Jatropha biodiesel with diesel
- J100:
-
100% Jatropha biodiesel
- M5:
-
5% Madhuca biodiesel with diesel
- M10:
-
10% Madhuca biodiesel with diesel
- M20:
-
20% Madhuca biodiesel with diesel
- M40:
-
40% Madhuca biodiesel with diesel
- M50:
-
50% Madhuca biodiesel with diesel
- M60:
-
60% Madhuca biodiesel with diesel
- M80:
-
80% Madhuca biodiesel with diesel
- M85:
-
85% Madhuca biodiesel with diesel
- M90:
-
90% Madhuca biodiesel with diesel
- M95:
-
95% Madhuca biodiesel with diesel
- M100:
-
100% Madhuca biodiesel
- PCA:
-
Principle component analysis
- PLS:
-
Partial least square
- UV-vis:
-
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy
References
Acharya N, Nanda P, Panda S, Acharya S (2017) Analysis of properties and estimation of optimum blending ratio of blended mahua biodiesel. Eng Sci and Technol, an Ir 20:511–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2016.12.005
Acharya N, Nanda P, Panda S, Acharya S (2019) A comparative study of stability characteristics of mahua and jatropha biodiesel and their blends. J King Saud Univ-Eng Sci 31:184–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksues.2017.09.003
Alves JCL, Poppi RJ (2013) Biodiesel content determination in diesel fuel blends using near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy and support vector machines (SVM). Talanta 104:155–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2012.11.033
Alves JCL, Poppi RJ (2016) Quantification of conventional and advanced biofuels contents in diesel fuel blends using near-infrared spectroscopy and multivariate calibration. Fuel 165:379–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.10.079
Anderson LA, Annaliese KF (2012) Real-time monitoring of transesterification by 1H NMR spectroscopy: catalyst comparison and improved calculation for biodiesel conversion. Energy Fuel 26:6404–6410. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef301035s
Ashraful A, Masjuki H, Kalam MA, Rashedul H, Sajjad H, Abedin MJ (2014) Influence of anti-corrosion additive on the performance, emission and engine component wear characteristics of an IDI diesel engine fueled with palm biodiesel. Energy Convers Manag 87:48–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.06.093
Bacha K, Ben-Amara A, Vannier A, Alves-Fortunato M, Nardin M (2015) Oxidation stability of diesel/biodiesel fuels measured by a PetroOxy device and characterization of oxidation products. Energy Fuels 29:4345–4355. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.5b00450
Balabin RM, Lomakina EI, Safieva RZ (2011) Neural network (ANN) approach to biodiesel analysis: analysis of biodiesel density, kinematic viscosity, methanol and water contents using near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy. Fuel 90:2007–2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2010.11.038
Beattie JR, Bell SEJ, Moss BW (2004) A critical evaluation of Raman spectroscopy for the analysis of lipids; fatty acid methyl esters. Lipids 39:407–419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-004-1245-z
Berman P, Meiri N, Linder C, Wiesman Z (2016) 1H low field nuclear magnetic resonance relaxometry for probing biodiesel autoxidation. Fuel 177:315–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.03.002
Bondioli P, Gasparoli A, Della Bella L, Tagliabue S, Toso G (2003) Biodiesel stability under commercial storage conditions over one year. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 105:735–741. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.200300783
Bradley M (2007) Bio-diesel (FAME) Analysis by FT-IR. Application note: 51285 Thermo Fisher Scientific. http://www.thermo.com/eThermo/CMA/PDFs/Articles/articlesFile_2448.pdf
Branco PC, Castilho PC, Rosa MF, Ferreira J (2010) Characterization of annona cherimola mill seed oil from Madeira island: a possible biodiesel feedstock. J Am Oil Chem Soc 87(4):429–436. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-009-1513-1
Chatterjee R, Mukherjee SK (2018) Spectroscopic analysis and performance studies of Jatropha extracted bio-diesel. Waste Biomass Valor 9:1579–1585. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-017-9897-x
Chatterjee R, Sharma V, Mukherjee S (2015) The environmental impacts and allocation methods used in LCA studies of vegetable oil-based bio-diesels: a review. Waste Biomass Valor 6:579–603. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-015-9375-2
Cheung CS, Zhu L, Huang Z (2009) Regulated and unregulated emissions from a diesel engine fueled with biodiesel and biodiesel blended with methanol. Atoms Environ 43:4865–4872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.07.021
Chuck CJ, Bannister CD, Hawley JG, Davidso MG (2010) Spectroscopic sensor techniques applicable to real-time bio-diesel determination. Fuel 89:457–461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2009.09.027
Datta A, Mandal BK (2018) Numerical prediction of the performance, combustion and emission characteristics of a CI engine using different biodiesels. Clean Techn Environ Policy 20:1773–1790. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-018-1567-6
Devan PK, Mahalakshmi NV (2009) A study of the performance, emission and combustion characteristics of compression ignition engine using methyl ester of paradise oil eucalyptus oil blends. Appl Energy 86:675–678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2008.07.008
Dube’ MA, Zheng S, DD ML, Kates MA (2004) Comparison of attenuated total reflectance-FTIR spectroscopy and GPC for monitoring biodiesel production. J Am Oil Chem Soc 6:599–603. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-006-0948-x
Faraguna F, Marko R, Ante J (2019) Test method for determination of different biodiesels (fatty acid alkyl esters) content in diesel fuel using FTIR-ATR. Rene Energy 133:1231–1235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.09.010
Ganesan S, Mahalingam S, Shyam Daniel Raj RA, Rajesh S (2020) Effects of nano additives on performance and emission characteristics of Mentha longifolia biodiesel. Int J Ambient Energy 41:322–325. https://doi.org/10.1080/01430750.2018.1456972
Ghesti GF, de Macedo JL, Braga VS, de Souza AT, Parente VC, Figuerêdo ES et al (2006) Application of Raman spectroscopy to monitor and quantify ethyl esters in soybean oil transesterification. J Am Oil Chem Soc 83:597–601. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-006-1244-5
Ghesti GF, de Macedo JL, Resck IS, Dias JA, Dias SCL (2007) FT-Raman spectroscopy quantification of biodiesel in a progressive soybean oil transesterification reaction and its correlation with 1H NMR spectroscopy methods. Energy Fuels 21:2475–2480. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef060657r
Giraldoa L, Moreno-Pirajan JC (2012) Lipase supported on mesoporous materials as a catalyst in the synthesis of biodiesel from Persea americana mill oil. J Molec Catal B Enzym 77:32–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molcatb.2012.01.001
Hasnain SMM, Chatterjee R, Sharma RP (2020) Spectroscopic performance and emission analysis of Glycine max biodiesel. J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. C 101:587–594. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40032-020-00570-x
Jain S, Sharma MP (2011) Oxidation stability of blends of Jatropha biodiesel with diesel. Fuel 90:3014–3020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2011.05.003
Ji J, Zhang G, Chen H, Wang S, Zhang G, Zhang F, Fan X (2011) Sulfonated graphene as water-tolerant solid acid catalyst. Chemical Science 2:484–487. https://doi.org/10.1039/C0SC00484G
Joshi RM, Pegg J (2007) Flow properties of biodiesel fuel blends at low temperatures. Fuel 86:143–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2006.06.005
Kalam MA, Masjuki HH, Jayed MH, Liaquat AM (2011) Emission and performance characteristics of an indirect ignition diesel engine fueled with waste cooking oil. Energy 36:397–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2010.10.026
Kannan GR (2019) Effect of catalyzed particulate filter and metal-based additive-added biodiesel on engine emissions. Environ Eng Sci 36:589–603. https://doi.org/10.1089/ees.2018.0287
Karavalakis G, Stournas S (2010) Impact of antioxidant additives on the oxidation stability of diesel/biodiesel blends. Energy Fuels 24:3682–3686. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef1004623
Killner MHM, Rohwedder JJR, Pasquini C (2011) A PLS regression model using NIR spectroscopy for on-line monitoring of the biodiesel production reaction. Fuel 90:3268–3273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2011.06.025
Knothe G (2001) Determining the blend level of mixtures of biodiesel with conventional diesel fuel by fiber-optic near-infrared spectroscopy and 1H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy. J Am Oil Chem. Soc 78:1025–1028. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-001-0382-0
Knothe G, Sharp CA, Ryan TW (2006) Exhaust emissions of biodiesel, petrodiesel, neat methyl esters, and alkanes in a new technology engine. Energy Fuels 20:403–408. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef0502711
Konwar LJ, Boro J, Deka D (2014) Review on latest developments in biodiesel production using carbon-based catalysts. Renew Sustain Energ Rev 29:546–564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.09.003
Mahamuni NN, Adewuyi YG (2009) Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) method to monitor soy biodiesel and soybean oil in transesterification reactions, petrodiesel-biodiesel blends, and blend adulteration with soy oil. Energy Fuels 23(7):3773–3782. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef900130m
Meng X, Chen G, Wang Y (2008) Biodiesel production from waste cooking oil via alkali catalyst and its engine test. Fuel Process Technol 89(9):851–857. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2008.02.006
Miranda AM, Castilho-Almeida EW, Ferreira EHM, Moreira GF, Achete CA, Armond RA, Jorio A (2014) Line shape analysis of the Raman spectra from pure and mixed biofuels esters compounds. Fuel 115:118–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2013.06.038
Monteiro MR, Ambrozin ARP, Lião LM, Ferreira AG (2009) Determination of bio-diesel blend level in different diesel samples by 1 H NMR. Fuel 88:691–696. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2008.10.010
Pantoja SS, da Conceição LRV, da Costa CE, Zamian JR, da Rocha FG (2013) Oxidative stability of biodiesels produced from vegetable oils having different degrees of unsaturation. Energy Convers Manag 74:293–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2013.05.025
Pinzi S, Alonso F, Garcıa Olmo J, Dorado MP (2012) Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy and multivariate analysis to monitor reaction products during biodiesel production. Fuel 92:354–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2011.07.006
Pinzi S, Rounce P, Herreros JM, Tsolakis A, Dorado MP (2013) The effect of biodiesel fatty acid composition on combustion and diesel engine exhaust emissions. Fuel 104:170–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2012.08.056
Raheman H, Ghadge SV (2007) Performance of compression ignition engine with mahua (Madhuca indica) biodiesel. Fuel 86:2568–2573. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2007.02.019
Rashed MM, Kalam MA, Masjuki HH, Mofijur M, Rasul MG, Zulkifli NWM (2016) Performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with palm, jatropha, and moringa oil methyl ester. Ind Crops Prod 79:70–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.10.046
Richard R, Dubreuil B, Thiebaud-Roux S, Prat L (2013) On-line monitoring of the transesterification reaction carried out in microreactors using near infrared spectroscopy. Fuel 104:318–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2012.07.054
Satyarthi JK, Srinivas D, Paul R (2009) Estimation of free fatty acid content in oils, fats, and biodiesel by 1H NMR spectroscopy. Energy Fuel 23:2273–2277. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef801011v
Schmidt K, Van Gerpen J (1996) The effect of biodiesel fuel composition on diesel combustion and emissions. SAE Technical Paper 961086:113–124. https://doi.org/10.4271/961086
Shah NS, Joshi A, Patel AP, Brahmkhatri VP (2013) Synthesis of Jatropha oil based biodiesel using environmentally friendly catalyst and their blending studies with diesel. Energy and Power 3:7–11. https://doi.org/10.5923/j.ep.20130301.02
Shahabuddin M, Kalam MA, Masjuki HH, Bhuiya MMK, Mofijur M (2012) An experimental investigation into biodiesel stability by means of oxidation and property determination. Energy 44:616–622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2012.05.032
Shimamoto GG, Tubino M (2016) Alternative methods to quantify biodiesel in standard diesel-biodiesel blends and samples adulterated with vegetable oil through UV–Visible spectroscopy. Fuel 186:199–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.08.076
Siatis NG, Kimbaris AC, Pappas CS, Tarantilis PA, Polissiou MG (2006) Improvement of biodiesel production based on the application of ultrasound: monitoring of the procedure by FTIR spectroscopy. J Am Oil Chem Soc 83(1):53–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-006-1175-1
Tariq M, Ali S, Ahmad F, Ahma M, Zafar M, Khalid N, Khan MA (2011) Identification, FT-IR, NMR (1H and 13C) and GC/MS studies of fatty acid methyl esters in biodiesel from rocket seed oil. Fuel Process Technol 92(3):336–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2010.09.025
Tat ME, Van Gerpen JH, Wang PS (2004) Fuel property effects on injection timing, ignition timing and oxides of nitrogen emissions from biodiesel-fuelled engines. In 2004 ASAE Annual Meeting (p.1), American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers. 10.13031/2013.17115
Vega-Lizama T, Díaz-Ballote L, Hernández-Mézquita E, May-Crespo F, Castro-Borges P, Castillo-Atoche A et al (2015) Thermogravimetric analysis as a rapid and simple method to determine the degradation degree of soy biodiesel. Fuel 156:158–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.04.047
Zagonel GF, Peralta-Zamora P, Ramos LP (2004) Multivariate monitoring of soybean oil ethanolysis by FTIR. Talanta 63(4):1021–1025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2004.01.008
Zhou J, Xiong Y, Gong Y, Liu X (2017) Analysis of the oxidative degradation of biodiesel blends using FTIR, UV–Vis, TGA and TD-DES methods. Fuel 202:23–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2017.04.032
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the Central Instrumentation Facility, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, India for conducting the experiments.
Availability of data and material
All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
RC conceptualized the idea, prepared material, performed all the experiments interpreted the results and was the major contributor in writing the first draft of the manuscript. SKM, RC reviewed, edited the manuscript. SKM supervised Raman experiment and edited the technical, language aspects of the manuscript. All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript (RC, SKM, BP, SC). All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Ta Yeong Wu
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
ESM 1
(PDF 1.74 mb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Chatterjee, R., Mukherjee, S.K., Paul, B. et al. Comparative spectroscopic analysis, performance and emissions evaluation of Madhuca longifolia and Jatropha curcas produced biodiesel. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28, 62444–62460 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15081-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15081-0