Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Illicit drugs and their metabolites in 36 rivers that drain into the Bohai Sea and north Yellow Sea, north China

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Environmental Science and Pollution Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Illicit drugs and their metabolites have recently been recognized as an emerging group of contaminants due to their potential ecotoxicological impact in aquatic ecosystems. To date, information on the occurrence of these compounds in the aquatic environment of China remains limited. In this study, we collected surface water samples from 36 rivers in north China that discharge into the Bohai Sea and north Yellow Sea and measured the concentrations of amphetamine-like compounds, ketamines, cocainics, and opioids. The occurrence and spatial patterns of these substances show significant differences between the rivers and regions. Two designer drugs, methamphetamine (METH) and ketamine (KET), were the most abundant compounds detected in the entire set of samples (detection frequency of 92 and 69 %). The concentrations of METH and KET ranged from <0.1 to 42.0 ng L−1 (mean = 4.53 ng L−1) and <0.05 to 4.50 ng L−1 (mean = 0.49 ng L−1), respectively. The high detection frequencies of METH and KET are consistent with the fact that they are the main illicit drugs consumed in China. The high concentrations of these illicit drugs and their metabolites were found in areas that have a high population density. The riverine input of total illicit drugs into the Bohai Sea and north Yellow Sea was estimated to be in the range of 684 to 1160 kg per year.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Baker DR, Kasprzyk-Hordern B (2011) Multi-residue analysis of drugs of abuse in wastewater and surface water by solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-positive electrospray ionisation tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 1218:1620–1631. doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2011.01.060

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baker DR, Kasprzyk-Hordern B (2013) Spatial and temporal occurrence of pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs in the aqueous environment and during wastewater treatment: new developments. Sci Total Environ 454:442–456. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.03.043

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bijlsma L, Serrano R, Ferrer C, Tormos I, Hernandez F (2014) Occurrence and behavior of illicit drugs and metabolites in sewage water from the Spanish Mediterranean coast (Valencia region). Sci Total Environ 487:703–709. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.11.131

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boles TH, Wells MJM (2010) Analysis of amphetamine and methamphetamine as emerging pollutants in wastewater and wastewater-impacted streams. J Chromatogr A 1217:2561–2568. doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2010.01.014

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Castiglioni S, Zuccato E (2010) Illicit drugs as emerging contaminants. In: Halden RU (Editor), Contaminants of emerging concern in the environment: ecological and human health considerations. ACS Symposium Series, pp. 119–136

  • CFDA (2015) Annual report on drug abuse (2014), China Food and Drug Administration

  • Du P, Li K, Li J, Xu Z, Fu X, Yang J, Zhang H, Li X (2015) Methamphetamine and ketamine use in major Chinese cities, a nationwide reconnaissance through sewage-based epidemiology. Water Res 84:76–84. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2015.07.025

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fedorova G, Randak T, Golovko O, Kodes V, Grabicova K, Grabic R (2014) A passive sampling method for detecting analgesics, psycholeptics, antidepressants and illicit drugs in aquatic environments in the Czech Republic. Sci Total Environ 487:681–687. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.12.091

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez-Marino I, Benito Quintana J, Rodriguez I, Cores M, Cela R (2015) Transformation of methadone and its main human metabolite, 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP), during water chlorination. Water Res 68:759–770. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2014.10.058

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hernández F, Ibáñez M, Botero-Coy A-M, Bade R, Bustos-López MC, Rincón J, Moncayo A, Bijlsma L (2015) LC-QTOF MS screening of more than 1,000 licit and illicit drugs and their metabolites in wastewater and surface waters from the area of Bogotá, Colombia. Anal Bioanal Chem 407:6405–6416. doi:10.1007/s00216-015-8796-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huerta-Fontela M, Galceran MT, Martin-Alonso J, Ventura F (2008) Occurrence of psychoactive stimulatory drugs in wastewaters in north-eastern Spain. Sci Total Environ 397:31–40. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.02.057

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jiang J-J, Lee C-L, Fang M-D (2014) Emerging organic contaminants in coastal waters: anthropogenic impact, environmental release and ecological risk. Mar Pollut Bull 85:391–399. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.12.045

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jones-Lepp TL, Alvarez DA, Petty JD, Huckins JN (2004) Polar organic chemical integrative sampling and liquid chromatography-electrospray/ion-trap mass spectrometry for assessing selected prescription and illicit drugs in treated sewage effluents. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 47:427–439. doi:10.1007/s00244-004-3146-6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kasprzyk-Hordern B, Dinsdale RM, Guwy AJ (2008) The occurrence of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine disruptors and illicit drugs in surface water in South Wales, UK. Water Res 42:3498–3518. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2008.04.026

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khan U, van Nuijs ALN, Li J, Maho W, Du P, Li K, Hou L, Zhang J, Meng X, Li X, Covaci A (2014) Application of a sewage-based approach to assess the use of ten illicit drugs in four Chinese megacities. Sci Total Environ 487:710–721. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.01.043

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koeck-Schulmeyer M, Ginebreda A, Postigo C, Lopez-Serna R, Perez S, Brix R, Llorca M, Lopez de Aida M, Petrovic M, Munne A, Tirapu L, Barcelo D (2011) Wastewater reuse in Mediterranean semi-arid areas: the impact of discharges of tertiary treated sewage on the load of polar micro pollutants in the Llobregat river (NE Spain). Chemosphere 82:670–678. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.11.005

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li J, Hou L, Du P, Yang J, Li K, Xu Z, Wang C, Zhang H, Li X (2014) Estimation of amphetamine and methamphetamine uses in Beijing through sewage-based analysis. Sci Total Environ 490:724–732. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.05.042

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li K, Du P, Xu Z, Gao T, Li X (2016) Occurrence of illicit drugs in surface waters in China. Environ Pollut 213:395–402. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2016.02.036

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lin AY-C, Wang X-H, Lin C-F (2010) Impact of wastewaters and hospital effluents on the occurrence of controlled substances in surface waters. Chemosphere 81:562–570. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.08.051

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lin C-F, Shiu Y-J, Kuo C-S, Lin AY-C, Wu C-H, Hong P-KA (2013) Photocatalytic degradation of morphine, methamphetamine, and ketamine by illuminated TiO2 and ZnO. React Kinet Mech Catal 110:559–574. doi:10.1007/s11144-013-0621-y

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maria HF, Maria Teresa G, Francesc V (2008) Stimulatory drugs of abuse in surface waters and their removal in a conventional drinking water treatment plant. Environ Sci Technol 42:6809–6816. doi:10.1021/es800768h

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCall A-K, Bade R, Kinyua J, Lai FY, Thai PK, Covaci A, Bijlsma L, van Nuijs ALN, Ort C (2016) Critical review on the stability of illicit drugs in sewers and wastewater samples. Water Res 88:933–947. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2015.10.040

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Metcalfe C, Tindale K, Li H, Rodayan A, Yargeau V (2010) Illicit drugs in Canadian municipal wastewater and estimates of community drug use. Environ Pollut 158:3179–3185. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2010.07.002

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Postigo C, de Alda MJ, Barceló D (2008a) Fully automated determination in the low nanogram per liter level of different classes of drugs of abuse in sewage water by on-line solid-phase extraction-liquid chromatography-electrospray-tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Chem 80:3123–3134. doi:10.1021/ac702060j

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Postigo C, Lopez de Alda MJ, Barceló D (2008b) Analysis of drugs of abuse and their human metabolites in water by LC-MS2: a non-intrusive tool for drug abuse estimation at the community level. TrAC Trends Anal Chem 27:1053–1069. doi:10.1016/j.trac.2008.10.002

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Postigo C, López de Alda MJ, Barceló D (2010) Drugs of abuse and their metabolites in the Ebro River basin: occurrence in sewage and surface water, sewage treatment plants removal efficiency, and collective drug usage estimation. Environ Int 36:75–84. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2009.10.004

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosa Boleda M, Teresa Galceran M, Ventura F (2009) Monitoring of opiates, cannabinoids and their metabolites in wastewater, surface water and finished water in Catalonia, Spain. Water Res 43:1126–1136. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2008.11.056

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosi-Marshall EJ, Snow D, Bartelt-Hunt SL, Paspalof A, Tank JL (2015) A review of ecological effects and environmental fate of illicit drugs in aquatic ecosystems. J Hazard Mater 282:18–25. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.06.062

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Senta I, Krizman I, Ahel M, Terzic S (2013) Integrated procedure for multiresidue analysis of dissolved and particulate drugs in municipal wastewater by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 405:3255–3268. doi:10.1007/s00216-013-6720-9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas KV et al (2012) Comparing illicit drug use in 19 European cities through sewage analysis. Sci Total Environ 432:432–439. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.06.069

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • UNODC (2015) World drug report 2015, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

  • Vazquez-Roig P, Andreu V, Blasco C, Morillas F, Pico Y (2012) Spatial distribution of illicit drugs in surface waters of the natural park of Pego-Oliva Marsh (Valencia, Spain). Environ Sci Pollut Res 19:971–982. doi:10.1007/s11356-011-0617-y

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vazquez-Roig P, Blasco C, Picó Y (2013) Advances in the analysis of legal and illegal drugs in the aquatic environment. TrAC Trends Anal Chem 50:65–77. doi:10.1016/j.trac.2013.04.008

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang R, Tang J, Xie Z, Mi W, Chen Y, Wolschke H, Tian C, Pan X, Luo Y, Ebinghaus R (2015) Occurrence and spatial distribution of organophosphate ester flame retardants and plasticizers in 40 rivers draining into the Bohai Sea, north China. Environ Pollut 198:172–178. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2014.12.037

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zuccato E, Chiabrando C, Castiglioni S, Calamari D, Bagnati R, Schiarea S, Fanelli R (2005) Cocaine in surface waters: a new evidence-based tool to monitor community drug abuse. Environ Health: A Glob Access Sci Source 4:14. doi:10.1186/1476-069X-4-14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zuccato E, Castiglioni S, Bagnati R, Chiabrando C, Grassi P, Fanelli R (2008) Illicit drugs, a novel group of environmental contaminants. Water Res 42:961–968. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2007.09.010

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank all the staff and students from Professor Xi-Qing Li’s group at the College of Urban and Environmental Sciences of Peking University for their assistance in the analysis. This study was supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, the National Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 41471413, 41476084, and 21007013), and the Key Research Programs of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (XDA11020402).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian Maritime University, 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116023, Liaoning, China

    De-Gao Wang, Qiu-Da Zheng & Juan Du

  2. Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, CAS, Yantai, 264003, China

    Xiao-Ping Wang & Chong-Guo Tian

  3. Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control (AEMPC), School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210044, China

    Zhuang Wang

  4. Key Laboratory for Ecological Environment in Coastal Areas (SOA), National Marine Environmental Monitoring Center, Dalian, 116023, China

    Lin-Ke Ge

Authors
  1. De-Gao Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Qiu-Da Zheng
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Xiao-Ping Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Juan Du
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Chong-Guo Tian
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Zhuang Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Lin-Ke Ge
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to De-Gao Wang.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Ester Heath

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

ESM 1

(DOCX 112 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Wang, DG., Zheng, QD., Wang, XP. et al. Illicit drugs and their metabolites in 36 rivers that drain into the Bohai Sea and north Yellow Sea, north China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23, 16495–16503 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6824-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6824-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation