Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Predicting Feminist Identity: Associations Between Gender-Traditional Attitudes, Feminist Stereotyping, and Ethnicity

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The connection between holding gender-traditional attitudes and the reluctance to identify as a feminist is well established, yet little is known about factors that might underlie this association. One factor that may serve this function is the tendency to hold negative stereotypes about feminists. Indeed, the constructs of ambivalent sexism (Glick and Fiske 1996) and ambivalence toward men (Glick and Fiske 1999) provide a strong theoretical basis for the prediction that traditional attitudes toward women and men are related to the derogation of women who do not conform to the feminine-stereotyped gender role. Therefore, the present study utilized path analysis to test a mediational model in which traditional attitudes toward women and men predict the tendency to stereotype feminists, which in turn predicts feminist identity. The present study also examined whether the relations between the variables in the model differed for African American, European American, and Latina women. Participants consisted of 544 women from the southern United States who, despite being undergraduates, were in their mid-to-late twenties on average. As expected, participant ethnicity moderated the paths in the model. Among African American and Latina women, hostility toward men and hostile sexism predicted the tendency to stereotype feminists, which then predicted feminist identity. Support for the mediational model was not obtained among European American women; instead, the model for European American women was characterized by direct paths from traditional attitudes toward women and men to feminist identity. Discussion focuses on the importance of considering participants’ ethnic background when assessing predictors of feminist identity.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adams, M., Coltrane, S., & Parke, R. D. (2007). Cross-ethnic applicability of the gender-based attitudes toward marriage and child rearing scales. Sex Roles, 56, 325–339. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9174-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alexander, S., & Ryan, M. (1997). Social constructs of feminism: A study of undergraduates at a women’s college. College Student Journal, 31, 555–567.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, K. J. (2010). Benign bigotry: The psychology of subtle prejudice. New York: Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, K. J. (2012). Is feminism good for women? In P. K. Lundberg-Love, K. L. Nadal, & M. A. Paludi (Eds.), Women and mental disorders (Vol. 1, pp. 1–15). Santa Barbara: Praeger Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, S. J., & Johnson, J. T. (2003). The who and when of “gender-blind” attitudes: Predictors of gender-role egalitarianism in two different domains. Sex Roles, 49, 527–532. doi:10.1023/A:1025836807911.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, K. J., Kanner, M., & Elsayegh, N. (2009). Are feminists man-haters? Feminists’ and nonfeminists’ attitudes toward men. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 216–224. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2009.01491.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aronson, P. (2003). Feminists or “postfeminists”? Young women’s attitudes toward feminism and gender relations. Gender and Society, 17, 903–922. doi:10.1177/0891243203257145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ayres, M. M., Friedman, C. K., & Leaper, C. (2009). Individual and situational factors related to young women’s likelihood of confronting sexism in their everyday lives. Sex Roles, 61, 449–460. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9635-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barreto, M., & Ellemers, N. (2005). The burden of benevolent sexism: How it contributes to the maintenance of gender inequalities. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35, 633–642. doi:10.1002/ejsp.270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barreto, M., Ellemers, N., Piebinga, L., & Moya, M. (2010). How nice of us and how dumb of me: The effect of benevolent sexism exposure on women’s task and relational self-descriptions. Sex Roles, 62, 532–544. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9699-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M. (2004). EQS structural equations modeling software (Version 6.1).[Computer software.] Encino, CA: Multivariate Software.

  • Berryman-Fink, C., & Verderber, K. S. (1985). Attributions of the term feminist: A factor analytic development of a measuring instrument. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9, 51–64. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1985.tb00860.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blackwood, E. (2000). Culture and women’s sexualities. Journal of Social Issues, 56, 223–238. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bollen, K. A., & Long, J. S. (Eds.). (1993). Testing structural equation models. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole, E. R., & Zucker, A. N. (2007). Black and White women’s perspectives on femininity. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13, 1–9. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.13.1.1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Downing, N. E., & Roush, K. L. (1985). From passive acceptance to active commitment: A model of feminist identity development for women. The Counseling Psychologist, 13, 695–709. doi:10.1177/0011000085134013.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisele, H., & Stake, J. (2008). The differential relationship of feminist attitudes and feminist identity to self-efficacy. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 233–244. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9936-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fassinger, R. E. (1994). Development and testing of the attitudes toward feminism and the women’s movement (FWM) scale. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 389–402. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb00462.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, A. R. (2006). Women’s benevolent sexism as reaction to hostility. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 410–416. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00316.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 878–902. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.82.6.878.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzpatrick Bettencourt, K. E., Vacha-Haase, T., & Byrne, Z. S. (2011). Older and younger adults’ attitudes toward feminism: The influence of religiosity, political orientation, gender, education, and family. Sex Roles, 64, 863–874. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9946-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flores, L. Y., Carruba, M. D., & Good, G. E. (2006). Feminism and Mexican American women: Examining the psychometric properties of two measures. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 28, 48–64. doi:10.1177/0739986305283222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gil, R. M., & Vazquez, C. I. (1996). The Maria paradox: How Latinas can merge old world traditions with new world self-esteem. New York: Putman Publishing Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilkes, C. T. (2001). If it wasn’t for the women: Black women’s experience and womanist culture in church and community. New York: Orbis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 491–512. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1999). The ambivalence toward men inventory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 23, 519–536. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1999.tb00379.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glick, P., & Whitehead, J. (2010). Hostility toward men and the perceived stability of male dominance. Social Psychology, 41, 177–185. doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000025.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glick, P., Diebold, J., Bailey-Werner, B., & Zhu, L. (1997). The two faces of Adam: Ambivalent sexism and polarized attitudes toward women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 1323–1334. doi:10.1177/01461672972312009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glick, P., Fiske, S. T., Mladinic, A., Saiz, J. L., Abrams, D., Masser, B., et al. (2000). Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 763–775.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glick, P., Lameiras, M., Fiske, S. T., Eckes, T., Masser, B., Volpato, C., et al. (2004). Bad but bold: Ambivalent attitudes toward men predict gender inequality in 16 nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 713–728. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.5.713.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin, S. A., & Fiske, S. T. (2001). Power and gender: The double-edged sword of ambivalence. In R. K. Unger (Ed.), Handbook on the psychology of women and gender (pp. 358–366). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenwood, R. M. (2008). Intersectional political consciousness: Appreciation for intragroup differences and solidarity in diverse groups. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 36–47. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00405.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harnois, C. E. (2005). Different paths to different feminism? Bridging multiracial feminist theory and quantitative sociological gender research. Gender and Society, 19, 809–828. doi:10.1177/0891243205280026.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haynes, F. E. (2000). Gender and family ideals: An exploratory study of Black middle-class Americans. Journal of Family Issues, 21, 811–837. doi:10.1177/019251300021007001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hicks, B. M., & Patrick, C. J. (2006). Psychopathy and negative emotionality: Analyses of suppressor effects reveal distinct relations with emotional distress, fearfulness, and anger-hostility. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 276–287. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.115.2.276.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1995). Evaluating model fit. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Issues, concepts, and applications (pp. 76–99). Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, A. G., & Sellers, S. L. (1998). Feminist attitudes among African American women and men. Gender and Society, 12, 81–99. doi:10.1177/089124398012001005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jayawardena, K. (1986). Feminism and Nationalism in the Third World. USA: Zed Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jost, J. T., & Kay, A. C. (2005). Exposure to benevolent sexism and complementary gender stereotypes: Consequences of specific and diffuse forms of system justification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 498–509. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.498.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kane, E. W. (2000). Racial and ethnic variations in gender-related attitudes. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 419–439. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, B. S. K., Li, L. C., & Ng, G. F. (2005). The Asian American values scale—multidimensional: Development, reliability, and validity. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 11, 187–201. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.11.3.187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landale, N. S., Schoen, R., & Daniels, K. (2010). Early family formation among White, Black, and Mexican American women. Journal of Family Issues, 31, 445–474. doi:10.1177/0192513X09342847.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leaper, C., & Arias, D. M. (2011). College women’s feminist identity: A multidimensional analysis with implications for coping with sexism. Sex Roles, 64, 475–490. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9936-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liss, M., O’Connor, C., Morosky, E., & Crawford, M. (2001). What makes a feminist? Predictors and correlates of feminist social identity in college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25, 124–133. doi:10.1111/1471-6402.00014.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd, K. M. (2006). Latinas’ transition to first marriage: An examination of four theoretical perspectives. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68, 993–1014. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00309.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manago, A. M., Brown, C. S., & Leaper, C. (2009). Feminist identity among Latina adolescents. Journal of Adolescents, 24, 750–776. doi:10.1177/0743558409341079.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masser, B. M., & Abrams, D. (2004). Reinforcing the glass ceiling: The consequences of hostile sexism for female managerial candidates. Sex Roles, 51, 609–615. doi:10.1007/s11199-004-5470-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miville, M. L., Constantine, M. G., Baysden, M. F., & So-Lloyd, G. (2005). Chameleon changes: An exploration of racial identity themes of multiracial people. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 507–516. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.52.4.507.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moraga, C., & Anzaldúa, G. (1984). This bridge called my back: Writings by radical women of color. USA: Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press.

  • Myaskovsky, L., & Wittig, M. A. (1997). Predictors of feminist social identity among college women. Sex Roles, 37, 861–883. doi:10.1007/BF02936344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, J. A., Liss, M., Erchill, M. J., Hurt, M. M., Ramsey, L. R., Turner, D. L., & Haines, M. E. (2008). Identity in action: Predictors of feminist self-identification and collective action. Sex Roles, 58, 721–728. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9384-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paulhus, D. L., Robins, R. W., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Tracy, J. L. (2004). Two replicable suppressor situations in personality research. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 303–328. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr3902_7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peltola, P., Milkie, M. A., & Presser, S. (2004). The “feminist” mystique: Feminist identity in three generations of women. Gender and Society, 18, 122–144. doi:10.1177/0891243203259921.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reid, A., & Purcell, N. (2004). Pathways to feminist identification. Sex Roles, 50, 759–769. doi:10.1023/B:SERS.0000029095.40767.3c.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ridgeway, C. L., & Smith-Lovin, L. (1999). The gender system and interaction. Annual Review of Sociology, 25, 191–216. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.25.1.191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross, L. E., & Davis, A. C. (1996). Black-White college student attitudes and expectations in paying for dates. Sex Roles, 35, 43–56. doi:10.1007/BF01548174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roy, R. E., Weibust, K. S., & Miller, C. T. (2007). Effects of stereotypes about feminists on feminist self-identification. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 146–156. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00348.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rúdólfsdóttir, A. G., & Jolliffe, R. (2008). ‘I don’t think people really talk about it that much’: Young women discuss feminism. Feminism Psychology, 18, 268–274. doi:10.1177/0959353507083098.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schick, V. R., Zucker, A. N., & Bay-Cheng, L. Y. (2008). Safer, better sex through feminism: The role of feminist ideology in women’s sexual well-being. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 225–232. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00431.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sibley, C. G., Overall, N. C., & Duckitt, J. (2007). When women become more hostilely sexist toward their gender: The system-justifying effect of benevolent sexism. Sex Roles, 57, 743–754. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9306-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D. E., Thompson, K. J., Raczynski, J. M., & Hilner, J. E. (1999). Body image among men and women in a biracial cohort: The CARDIA study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 25, 71–82. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199901)25:1<71::AID-EAT9>3.0.CO;2-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tatum, B. D. (1997). “Why are all the black kids sitting together in the cafeteria?” and other conversations about race. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., & Zucker, A. N. (1999). What is a feminist? Evaluations and stereotypes in closed- and open-ended responses. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 23, 591–605. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1999.tb00383.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R., & Wittig, M. A. (1997). “I’m not a feminist, but…”: Factors contributing to the discrepancy between pro-feminist orientation and feminist social identity. Sex Roles, 37, 885–904. doi:10.1007/BF02936345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yoder, J. D., Tobias, A., & Snell, A. F. (2011). When declaring “I am a feminist” matters: Labeling is linked to activism. Sex Roles, 64, 9–18. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9890-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgment

We warmly thank Ann Fischer and Campbell Leaper for their helpful comments on an earlier version of this paper. We also thank Irene Frieze and two anonymous reviewers for their suggestions during the review process. These data were presented at the 2011 Society for Personality and Social Psychology conference in San Antonio, TX and at the 2011 Association for Women in Psychology conference in Philadelphia, PA.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA

    Rachael D. Robnett

  2. Downtown Social Sciences Department, University of Houston, One Main St., Houston, TX, 77002, USA

    Kristin J. Anderson

  3. Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-1043, USA

    L. E. Hunter

Authors
  1. Rachael D. Robnett
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kristin J. Anderson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. L. E. Hunter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rachael D. Robnett.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Robnett, R.D., Anderson, K.J. & Hunter, L.E. Predicting Feminist Identity: Associations Between Gender-Traditional Attitudes, Feminist Stereotyping, and Ethnicity. Sex Roles 67, 143–157 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0170-2

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0170-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation