Introduction

Studies have been conducted with the aim of understanding and presenting the general trends concerning teachers’ Professional Development (PD) and the integration of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in science classes (Annetta et al. 2012; Athanassios 2010; Dori et al. 2002; Hsu 2010). Despite the difficulties faced in the introduction of ICTs into educational settings, some research has been conducted to understand and present the general trends in ICT-based science education. In this study, ICT will be referred to as possible media educational technologies for use in teaching (Lawless and Pellegrino 2007; McConnell et al. 2012).

Faced with the technological apparatus, trainers are constantly challenged with the task of preparing future teachers to use digital technologies, or ICTs, as a tool for teaching that is innovative and integrated in the students’ lives (Donnelly et al. 2011; Hsu 2010; Zacharia 2007). One possibility for the development of teachers’ technological literacy is to incorporate the various digital tools, integrated with the pedagogical disciplines, during PD training courses for teachers as mediators that support new strategies for pedagogical and teaching methodologies. However, the PD programs often offer courses in basic technology that emphasises the technology more than the pedagogical approaches to its use (Ling Wong et al. 2006; Marshall and Young 2006; Syh-Jong 2008; Voogt 2010). Some studies indicate that future teachers need to plan a science curriculum that is closer to the students’ reality (Syh-Jong 2008; Voogt 2010), and for this purpose, they should reflect on the use and best practices mediated by technology.

Due to the importance of integrating ICT in a context of science education, the present study aimed to characterise the main ICTs and trends of theoretical frameworks (theoretical foundation, literature review or background) of studies that investigate training of science teachers, the PD and the use of ICT. In it, we will present a reflection of some studies, based on a bibliographic research, since which ICTs have assumed a growing presence in the PD of science teachers. In this review, we will seek to identify the main characteristics and trends of the theoretical frameworks, i.e. the theoretical bases that support the articles of training of science teachers and the use of digital technologies.

We emphasise that the theoretical framework of any study identifies, characterises and lists a set of studies and theories on a given subject. The theoretical foundation supports the process of reasoning in research, assisting the researcher in searching for answers (Dixon-Woods 2010). In this sense, the development of this study is justified because we consider it important to know the theoretical foundations of studies on training process and application of ICTs in science education to see what has been investigated on this topic. This paper seeks to understand what theoretical tendencies are most emphasised and what PD models, for the use of ICTs, are being developed. In this sense, we expect to contribute with some insights to help to build or restructure training courses in PD for science teachers.

Science Education and Digital Technologies

Although educational policies and guidelines have put enormous effort into positioning ICTs as a central subject of contemporary education, their use in educational settings still encounters resistance from many teachers (Athanassios 2010). Even though access to computers has increased in schools, in most cases, teachers continue to use ICT primarily for formal academic tasks (to obtain information from the Internet) or administrative purposes (to develop lesson plans, worksheets and assessment tests) and not as a tool to support students in active learning (Chang and Tsai 2005; Dori and Belcher 2005).

Charlier et al. (2007) use the term ICTE, that is, Information and Communication Technologies for Education (ICTE), which include the different digital tools that can be used in education and teaching (ICTE = ICT + Education). Strømme and Furberg (2015) use the term digital resources to characterise the tools that are embedded in computer-based inquiry environments and that could support student learning. Examples of digital resources are dynamic or static visualisations, computer simulations, interactive tasks, collaboration- and argumentation-supporting tools, domain-specific text, etc., designed to represent a scientific phenomenon and/or central scientific concept.

For the current study, we will use the term Digital Technologies (ICTE tools and digital resources) to characterise the studies in ICT-based science education. For us, ICTE tools are a hardware perspective, while the digital resources are from the perspective of digital content. Examples of ICTE tools that we could find in recent studies are interactive whiteboard (IWB) (Warwick et al. 2010), mobile learning environments (MLE) (Ekanayake and Wishart 2015; Price et al. 2013), Moodle platform (Pombo et al. 2012), computers/laptops (Howard et al. 2015; Nielsen et al. 2014; Şad and Göktaş 2014), etc. Examples of digital resources are simulation (Anastopoulou et al. 2011; Khan 2010; Lindgren and Schwartz 2009; Plass et al. 2012), the Internet and Web (Gelbart et al. 2009; Katz 2011; Lee et al. 2011; She et al. 2012), multimedia and hypermedia (Starbek et al. 2010; Tolentino et al. 2009; Zheng et al. 2008), animation (Barak et al. 2011; Dalacosta et al. 2009), game (Squire and Jan 2007), wiki (Chen et al. 2015; Donnelly and Boniface 2013; Kim et al. 2012), educational software (Lavonen et al. 2003; Valtonen et al. 2013), movies/video (Ling Wong et al. 2006; Roth et al. 2011), videoconference (McConnell et al. 2012), etc.

Teachers’ PD is seen as the most important aspect of digital technology integration (ICTE tools and digital resources), and it has been repeatedly identified as a top priority in education policies, i.e. one of the PD goals for teachers is to be familiar with the emerging issues in digital technology integration (Hsu 2010). The number of studies on the effectiveness of technologies and how to introduce them into the science curriculum or in PD programs has been increasing annually; however, little is known about its use in the classroom or about its relation with science teacher’s PD.

Digital Technologies to Support Science Teacher’s Professional Development

PD is critical to ensuring that teachers become familiar with new methods to teach contents of different areas, learn how to use digital technologies for teaching and learning and adapt their teaching to shifting school environments and an increasingly diverse student population (Annetta et al. 2012; Lawless and Pellegrino 2007; McConnell et al. 2012). However, the number of PD opportunities for teachers has increased, the understanding of Lawless and Pellegrino (2007) about what constitutes quality of PD, what teachers learn from it or its impact on student outcomes has not substantially increased. Recent publications have described the current state of PD in an attempt to focus attention on providing more effective opportunities for teacher learning (McConnell et al. 2012; Lawless and Pellegrino 2007). Most of these studies cite the PD programs how one-time, short-duration workshops and presentation mandated by school leaders for all teachers, which have been shown to be inadequate strategies for bringing about change in teacher practices (Campbell et al. 2015; Ekanayake and Wishart 2015; El-Hani and Greca 2012; McConnell et al. 2012). While many PD models exist, few provide sufficient support after the initial PD occurs (Smithenry et al. 2012). Lawless and Pellegrino (2007) present an overall schema that can be used retrospectively to classify the “type of PD”:

  • Delivery mechanism: face to face, technology mediated, online

  • Content of PD: skills, knowledge, pedagogy, design

  • Duration: one shot, extended duration, follow-up.

Although the literature contains many examples of extensive PD programs, several models have been elaborated and tested (Dori et al. 2002; El-Hani and Greca 2012; McConnell et al. 2012; Saka 2013; Smithenry et al. 2012). For example, an emerging model that meets the criteria for effective PD has teachers participating in Professional Learning Communities (PLC) where they themselves identify a common problem and determine the steps to address it (McConnell et al. 2012; Smithenry et al. 2012); and there are models that incorporate a socio-cultural perspective, where the training is based on the teacher’s own work, centred on students’ learning and adapted to the teacher’s PD stage (El-Hani and Greca 2012). The length and intensiveness of the PD programme also play an important role in changing teachers’ attitudes towards the use of technology in teaching (Dori et al. 2002).

Many teachers require assistance in integrating digital technologies and they are willing to participate in in-service training sessions if appropriate time is allocated (Klieger et al. 2009). Training teachers in how to implement digital technologies is a process that requires differential training that takes into account the various fields into which the technology will be integrated (Klieger et al. 2009).

The work of Lawless and Pellegrino (2007) also highlighted a number of other issues related to the integration of digital technology into instruction that include the following: (1) focus of PD (technology grounded or content embedded), (2) delivery mechanism (face-to-face or online), (3) skill development or pedagogy enriching and (4) linkages to theories of how people learn and how to assess this learning. For Lawless and Pellegrino (2007), each of these constructs will likely impact how, when and how often technology is integrated in classroom practice, and they are specific indicators of technological PD versus more generic PD opportunities.

The literature contains many examples of extensive PD programmes and the use of digital technologies (see Annetta et al. 2012; Athanassios 2010; Cavanaugh and Dawson 2010; Dori et al. 2002; Hsu 2010; Kim et al. 2012; Ling Wong et al. 2006; Marshall and Young 2006; So 2012; Webb 2005), but there is no unified view about how teachers’ integration of ICT tools and digital resources should be measured (Hsu 2010). In this respect, the Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK) model has been gaining credit among educational researchers (Annetta et al. 2012; Athanassios 2010). Athanassios (2010) established a series of TPACK-based workshop activities aimed at preparing upper-secondary physics teachers for the integration of microcomputer-based laboratories (MBL) in a student-centred teaching approach; however, studies documenting university students’ perceptions of their teachers’ TPACK remain limited (Chang et al. 2014).

The study of Dori et al. (2002) adopted the CERA (collaborate-enact-reflect-adapt) model for PD programme. The literature on PD also includes support for the use of online communities for teacher learning (Cavanaugh and Dawson 2010; McConnell et al. 2012). For example, the online professional development (OPD) model by Cavanaugh and Dawson (2010) and design-based research principles guided the study of Annetta et al. (2012) to a PD project. Made possible by recent technological advances, video cases have emerged as an alternative, flexible form of PD where in-service teachers can repeatedly and vicariously view examples of reform teaching practices enacted within the context of the classroom (Smithenry et al. 2012).

Most teacher PD initiatives tend to focus on technological aspects (i.e. how to use various tools) while pedagogical and instructional issues (i.e. why and how to use those tools to enhance learning) are often taken for granted (Athanassios 2010; Hsu 2010; Lawless and Pellegrino 2007; McConnell et al. 2012). As a result, the application of ICT in school settings has been driven more by the accordance of technology rather than the demands of pedagogy and didactics of subject matter (Athanassios 2010).

Lawless and Pellegrino (2007) focused on what is known and unknown about PD to support the integration of technology into teaching and learning. To answer such questions, their review emphasise on three major challenges in the literature: (1) defining and evaluating what constitutes quality PD, irrespective of the specific PD topic; (2) that the integration of technology into teaching and learning is not a simple matter because there are many ways in which that integration can occur, some more productive and theoretically meaningful than others; (3) the fact that the recent research literature on technology-related PD is extremely limited in scope and markedly weak regarding the inferences one can draw about what makes a difference.

Teachers’ PD is a key factor in improving science education, but it shows limited impact when only a small number of teachers is reached, or when it focuses on only one aspect of teachers’ development, such as learning science content, and is disconnected from teachers’ practice (El-Hani and Greca 2012). The appearance of digital technologies in these courses to improve science education is commonly seen as possibility of an incorporation of innovation in training programmes and consequently in science teaching. In order to incorporate the innovations learnt in these courses, it is important to reformulate them because teachers often do not see clearly the benefits of these innovations for their PD programme (El-Hani and Greca 2012).

Research Methodology

Research Questions

Due to the importance of integrating ICT in a context of science education, the present study aimed to characterise the main digital technologies and trends of theoretical frameworks (theoretical foundation, literature review or background) of studies that investigate science teacher’s PD and the use of digital technologies. In it, we will present a reflection of a set of studies, during which digital technologies (ICTE tools and digital resources) have assumed a growing presence in the PD programmes of science teachers. Our intention is to answer the following questions:

  1. (1)

    What are the main characteristics of the studies on the science teachers’ PD (in-service and pre-service) for the use of digital resources and ICTE tools?

  2. (2)

    What are the main trends concerning the theoretical frameworks of studies on the PD training programmes and the use of digital technologies for science teachers?

Research Design

To answer the questions proposed, we conducted a review of the literature based on the work of Dixon-Woods (2010) and consistent with the qualitative data analysis introduced by Silverman (2001, 2010). We have concentrated in articles on the use of digital technologies (ICTE tools and digital resources) with an emphasis on the training of science teachers. The research studies used were identified using the following three-step procedure:

First step: We ran a search in the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) databases using the combination of two keywords (descriptors): science education and technology. The two keywords were combined using the “Boolean logic ‘AND’”. In order to control the quality of the literature, the authors also refined the search results with the options peer reviewed only, journal articles and teachers how participating audience. From this combination, we had an initial outcome of 966 articles, from the period from 2002 to 2015.

Second step: The definition of some inclusion and exclusion criteria allowed us to analyse 966 articles and identify the more appropriate studies (Table 1). We only examined studies published in journals. We tried to focus solely on empirical studies, even when the theoretical and philosophical publications sought to clarify the place of ICT in scientific education and the ways in which students and teachers can be supported by the use of ICT.

Table 1 Inclusion and exclusion criteria of the literature review process
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To facilitate the analysis of the data and its identification, we restricted in ten the number of journals arbitrated in science education and educational technology (Table 2). The journals that did not present studies according to the first step and the inclusion and exclusion criteria (Table 1) were not selected, for example Journal of Educational Computing Research, Journal of Educational Research and Journal of Science Teacher Education. After the definition of inclusion and exclusion criteria and definition of journals, we systematically analysed the titles, abstracts and keywords to confirm that the selected articles met the following criteria: (1) used Information and Communication Technology for the Sciences Education (ICTSE) and its resources; (2) were related to education and science education; (3) provided empirical evidence, evaluation and reflection on ICT-based science education and (4) presented reflections on PD, training of science teachers, their actions and the use of ICT.

Table 2 Results of the articles’ research by journal
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We consider technology articles containing the following keywords: digital technologies, digital resources, Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), Internet/Web, simulations, learning objects, virtual and remote laboratories, animations, multimedia environment, hypermedia, computers/laptops, immersive virtual environment, games, interactive whiteboard (IWB) and movies/videos. For science education, we consider the following keywords: teacher training; science teachers, science teacher’s PD, scientific literacy; learning of sciences, physics, biology, chemistry, geology, etc.; primary education; secondary education and teaching of science, physics, chemistry, biology, geology, etc.

From the inclusion and exclusion criteria (Table 1) and the selection of articles by journal (Table 2), to meet the objectives of this work, 76 articles were identified as the source of data for this review, i.e. studies on educational technologies in the context of the use and training of science teachers (Table 2).

Third step: the process of information categorisation was guided by the textual discursive analysis (TDA) of Moraes and Galiazzi (2011). TDA is a qualitative data analysis methodology that is organised in three steps: (1) unitarisation (fragmenting the text), (2) categorisation and (3) communication of categories (metatexts) (Moraes and Galiazzi 2011, p. 192). We will use this methodological strategy because it offers researchers a way of analysing text production from constructions of categories that do not necessarily need to be mutually exclusive, thus offering a more holistic and comprehensive look at the studies that will be analysed. It is worth noting that some studies may present more than one trend of theoretical frameworks or more than one ICTE tool and digital resources. We use these three steps for the development of our analysis:

  1. (1)

    Fragmenting the text (unitarisation): We conducted the fragmentation of the studies into units of meaning using the software MaxQda 11.0.2.Footnote 1 The units were organised into a database with the following fields: (a) journal, (b) authors, (c) article, (d) topics, (e) amount (n)/grade level, (f) major subject/content, (g) methods/data, (h) ICT/resources, (i) theory, (j) objectives of study, (k) results and (l) limitations.

  2. (2)

    Categorisation: We made a direct comparison between the units of meaning concerning: journal, authors, (n)/grade level, major subject/content, methods/data, ICT/resources, theory, objectives of study and results. The units of meaning that had been previously established in “unitarisation” and “agglutinated” textual elements that had close proximity of meanings and significance resulted in two analysis axes: characteristics of articles and trends concerning theoretical frameworks. Using the process for the analysis of the axes, we made new comparisons and aggregations that resulted in the following categories and sub-categories (Moraes and Galiazzi 2011; Silverman 2001, 2010) (Table 3):

    For the first axis, we have sought answers mainly in summaries of the selected articles. For the second axis, we looked at the “theoretical framework”, “theoretical foundation”, “literature review” or “background” of the articles.

  3. (3)

    Communication of categories (metatext): We built descriptive texts of categories and sub-categories taking into consideration other authors, and the results of the studies of our review revealed the characterisation of the theoretical frameworks for the PD of science teachers on the use of ICTE tools and digital resources.

Table 3 Main categories and sub-categories from the literature review
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Results and Discussions

Characteristics of the Studies on the Science Teachers’ PD for the Use of Digital Resources and ICTE Tools

To conduct the survey work on the science teachers’ PD for the use of digital resources and ICTE tools, we found that 29% of the articles (Table 2) were related to teacher practices (training or use of technologies). The majority of these studies were focused on the effects of ICT on teacher education (Anderson and Barnett 2011; Goldstone and Son 2005; Haydn and Barton 2007; Ling Wong et al. 2006; Roth et al. 2011) and how teachers apply educational technologies in the classroom (Dawson 2008; Dori et al. 2002; Songer et al. 2002; Stylianidou et al. 2005). The empirical research of our review found that methodologies were more focused on the process and qualitative characteristics. That is, some studies used data collection instruments that employed a combination of methods, such as interviews, questionnaires, video and audio recordings, and diaries and forms to characterise the process of training and the use of ICT in science classes (Bell and Trundle 2008; Childs et al. 2011).

Next, we verified that the majority of studies were focused on training (pre- and in-service teachers), followed by the application and development of teaching activities based on various ICT tools and digital resources. To answer the first question of our review, we examined the three sub-categories that characterised the 76 studies (Table 3): major subjects, types of training and actions and main ICTE tools and digital resources used.

Major Subjects

The majority of studies were developed in relation to science education (67.0%), mainly highlighting primary-school teachers and content with diverse issues from an interdisciplinary perspective: electricity (Roth et al. 2011; Stylianidou et al. 2005), photosynthesis and the water cycle (Roth et al. 2011), terminal speed, light and osmosis (Hennessy et al. 2006), life cycle of a ladybird beetle (Hoban and Nielsen 2013), etc. For example, Bell and Trundle (2008) examined various teaching strategies that facilitate the learning of the concepts related to oceans by means of web data, and Ucar and Trundle (2011) examined various teaching strategies that facilitate the learning of concepts pertaining to the phases of the moon through software with pre-service primary-school teachers. A smaller number focused their attention on education and the role of teachers in a specific subject, e.g. physics (17.3%), chemistry (10.9%) and biology (8.7%).

Types of Training for the Professional Development

Regarding types of training, the research can be divided into two groups (Table 4). The first, totalling 35.9%, are studies dedicated to student-teacher training (STT) or pre-service teacher training (PST). These studies present data on the integration of digital resources during the training of pre-service science teachers. For example, Zacharia (2007) investigated the change in the conceptual understanding of electrical circuits of 88 pre-service teachers by combining real experimentation (ER) with virtual experimentation (EV).

Table 4 Characterisation of the studies according to the type of training and actions for the PD
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The second group, totalling 30.8%, are studies dedicated to in-service teacher training (IST), that is, they are studies developed with science teachers that seek to characterise the limits and possibilities of the integration of digital technologies in science classes through proposals and models for the training of in-service teachers. For example, Athanassios (2010) presents the design and implementation of the “Technological Pedagogical Science Knowledge (TPASK)” model, Donnelly et al. (2011) present the “Teacher ICT integration model” and Kim et al. (2012) present the “Professional Learning Community Model for Entry into Teaching Science (PLC-METS)”.

In addition to these two types of training, we found a significant group of studies (33.3%) that involve the application, development and conceptions (ADC) of teachers concerning on ICTE tools and digital resources. These are empirical works that present data regarding activities related to the development (production and creation) and application (use) of digital resources in science classes, and they also present the conceptions of teachers concerning the contribution of digital technologies in teaching. Table 4 shows the number of studies found for each theme and the identification of the main research in each theme.

Main ICTE Tools and Digital Resources Used During the PD

Considering the data collected, we observe that the resources and digital technologies that are used in science teacher training are diverse (Fig. 1), mainly the Web/Internet. However, the emphasis of the research is not the technology itself, which was already taken as a criterion, but rather the integration of these resources in the classroom as learning tools and mediators of the process of the construction of school scientific knowledge. Figure 1 shows the digital technologies and relates them to their moments of training (pre- and in-service) and teacher ADC.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Main ICTE tools and digital resources for each type of training and use by science teachers

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Different ICTE tools and digital resources for each type of training and use by science teachers are present in more than one study (Fig. 1). The term “Innovative Technologies” is present in Çalik et al. (2014) that defines it as a narrower sense of the innovation, e.g. online discussion boards, website, sensors, probes, Logger Pro software and GPS (Çalik et al. 2014). The “educational software” are digital resources that can be used online or offline, e.g. microcomputer-based laboratory package (Lavonen et al. 2003), tutorial, problem-solving tools, exercises and practices and programming. “ICT tools” are different digital technologies and resources that can be used in science education (Dawson 2008; de Winter et al. 2010; Haydn and Barton 2007; Maeng et al. 2013; Webb 2005). For a set of studies, it was not specified a digital resource, but rather the use of different ICT in science education. Recent trends in the training of teachers have emphasised the importance of learning with technology rather than learning about technology (Janssen and Lazonder 2015; Nielsen and Hoban 2015) through the integration of ICT in teacher education courses (Anderson and Barnett 2011; Athanassios 2010; Haydn and Barton 2007; Ling Wong et al. 2006), i.e. there is a greater concern on how to integrate digital resources into science education instead of understanding its role and characteristics.

Main Trends Concerning the Theoretical Frameworks of Studies on the PD and the Use of ICT Tools and Digital Resources by Science Teachers

In recent years, several countries have considered it increasingly important that those who enter the teaching profession should be able to use new technologies in an effective way to develop the majority of contents (Donnelly et al. 2011). Despite the large financial investment that ICT in schools entails (Syh-Jong 2008) and the considerable pressure for teachers to be trained to become competent in its use, recent studies show that its effective use continues to be a problematic aspect of teacher training (Jang 2006; Jang and Chen 2010; Voogt 2010). To deepen this question, we would like to focus the discussion on only the characteristics or work trends concerning the theoretical frameworks about the training of science teachers (pre- and in-service) and the use of digital technologies. The analysis of the theoretical foundations of these frameworks helps us to understand how the authors situate the training of science teachers and/or how they use digital resources during PD programmes and in their classes. As we examined the 76 studies, we organised the main trends of theoretical frameworks into three categories, as shown in Table 5.

Table 5 Trends of theoretical frameworks concerning the main research on the training and use of digital technologies by science teachers
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We can observe in Table 5 that 85.5% of the studies that relate ICTE tools and digital resources to the training of science teachers (pre- and in-service) in theoretical frameworks follows three lines: the first is about the digital (tool and resources), the second takes the perspective of curricular renewal and the third concerns cognitive processes. It is worth noting that some studies may present more than one trend. For example, the study by Ling Wong et al. (2006) includes a theoretical framework concerning “conceptual understanding” (category 3) and a proposal of a training model: “Five dimensions of Kember’s framework” (category 2). To understand these categories and sub-categories, we will check which studies were found in each one and analyse them separately. There is also a group of studies (14.5%) that have a theoretical framework that is more open, that contain multiple elements without deepening them or that even lack a theoretical framework that supports the study.

Theoretical Frameworks That Emphasise the Digital Technologies

The trend of the theoretical frameworks of this group of studies concerns the role of ICTE tools and digital resources in the context of training and its use in science classes. The works present reflections on their theoretical frameworks, research results, contributions and limitations of the use of different digital technologies for science teaching and learning. Table 6 presents the main studies, the number of teachers with the type of training (PST or IST) or actions (ADC), the main digital technologies, the major subject and contents, methods of data collection and the main references evidenced in the theoretical frameworks.

Table 6 Summary of the studies that show the use of ICT as the main theoretical references
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Examining the theoretical frameworks of the studies in Table 6, we noticed that, when trying to integrate any digital resource into education, and particularly into science education, potential barriers should be considered. The main barrier concerns teachers’ training, and therefore, it is an important starting point for the understanding of the teaching process based on the use of ICT (Donnelly et al. 2011).

In Table 6, there are also studies that characterise the use of ICT by science teachers and identify the factors that improve or inhibit this use in their science classes. The most frequent use of ICT are word processing, Internet research, e-mail and PowerPoint, while the least frequent uses are laptop operation, designing web pages, online discussion groups and virtual tours (Dawson 2008). It is also evidenced the factors that inhibit the use of ICT, i.e. excessive workload, problems with managing student behaviour and difficulties accessing computers and the Internet. These results indicate the limited use of technological resources and a trend that leads us to consider the existence of a difficulty relating the use of ICTEs to the didactic and pedagogic aspects of science teaching.

With the objective of improving the quality of the training courses for science teachers on the use of digital resources, we noticed that other technological resources were characterised in the theoretical frameworks of the studies in Table 6: video games (Anderson and Barnett 2011), simulations (Goldstone and Son 2005), web-based research activities (Dori et al. 2002), mobile phones (Şad and Göktaş 2014), etc.

Revisions to the theoretical frameworks show that the use of video gaming can contribute to positive effects of learning of pre-service teachers, besides being pedagogical resources for the science education (Anderson and Barnett 2011). In addition, it is suggested that a complementary approach that integrates the games and practical activities can be a useful technique to support the scientific understanding of students in training (Anderson and Barnett 2011). Much of the research on video games still focused on the negative impacts of playing digital games, particularly on the effects of playing digital entertainment games, such as difficulties in regulating the amount of time spent playing games, addiction, social isolation and nauseogenic properties of games with head-mounted displays (Connolly et al. 2012). It is important for teacher educators to be aware that many within the current generation of pre-service teachers may harbour negative perceptions of video games and such perceptions will likely limit their willingness to integrate such tools into their future classrooms (Anderson and Barnett 2011).

There are theoretical frameworks that discuss the use of simulations to promote the understanding of scientific concepts and phenomena (Goldstone and Son 2005; Stylianidou et al. 2005; Waight et al. 2014). The incorporation of simulations in the science curriculum and identification of possible factors that favour or hinder the adoption of these resources is in science classes is related to the quality of the materials, the teachers’ beliefs concerning the effectiveness of ICT and the contexts in which they work. If these beliefs and contexts are not overcome during professional development, it will take time for the teachers to change their practices.

Supported by the study of Dori et al. (2002), we see, from Table 6, that there are four basic types of science teachers: (1) the initiator and discoverer who performs education based on the ICT in any and all cases, (2) the follower and conformist who applies teaching based on the ICT when it is convenient, (3) the avoider who only uses education based on the ICT if necessary and (4) the antagonist who will not use education based on the Web under any circumstances.

Table 6 also presents a set of studies that have as main theoretic reference the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge model (originally TPCK, currently known as TPACK) (Janssen and Lazonder 2015; Marino et al. 2012; Pringle et al. 2015; Yeh et al. 2014a) proposed by Mishra and Koehler (2006). It is important to cite that these studies emphasise the technological object and not the theoretical model TPACK that was used to base the studies. This theoretical model will be deepened in the following topic (theoretical frameworks that emphasise prospects of curricular renewal).

In relation to mobile phones, it has been found that they can support science teaching in a variety of ways, in particular with communication during planning lessons, with relating subject knowledge to authentic locations and activities during teaching and with image and data capture to support assessment and post-lesson reflection (Şad and Göktaş 2014). In this sense, it is important that science teachers can recognise the educational potential of mobile phones during your PD, in learning how to use them in science teaching and learning and in changing their attitudes towards the use of mobile phones in teaching and in sharing knowledge and skills relating to mobile phone applications in science teaching and learning. The results of the analysis of the theoretical frameworks imply an urgent need to grow awareness among teachers (pre- and in-service teachers) towards the concept of m-learning, especially m-learning through m-phones.

In short, this category showed that 35.9% of the studies in our review features the role of digital resources and tools in teacher training in their theoretical frameworks but that the real effects of these resources for the teaching-learning process of science are not yet clear to pre- and in-service science teachers.

Theoretical Frameworks That Emphasise Prospects of Curricular Renewal

Proposals for PD Models and Use of Digital Technologies

In addition to a number of issues that may hinder the development of the use of digital technologies in schools, Sorensen et al. (2007) note concerns pertaining to the unavailability of good models for the integration of digital technologies in the practices of teachers. When we access the “main theoretical references” in Table 2, we see that a group of studies presented models that integrated different digital resources into training and use in the classroom. These models and proposals are characterised in Table 7.

Table 7 Summary of studies that present training models and use of ICTE tools and digital resources
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We will not deepen the theoretical bases of the nine training models for the use of digital technologies of Table 7, but knowing them will serve as a reference for the development of future training proposals for teachers and the use of ICTE tools and digital resources, especially in science education.

  1. (1)

    Five dimensions of Kember’s framework: the first training model for the use of digital technologies refers to the enrichment of conceptions of good science education through the use of videos (Ling Wong et al. 2006). The training videos feature science classes and are produced based on this model: (1) the essential features of learning and teaching, (2) the roles of the student and teacher, (3) the aims and expected outcomes of teaching, (4) the content of teaching and (5) the preferred styles and approaches to teaching. The purpose of using these videos for the professional development of science teachers is to demonstrate that the videos increase the awareness of the methods and alternative approaches to education, awareness of different situations in the classroom and existence of good practice, and they lead the teachers to reflect on their current conceptions of good science teaching.

  2. (2)

    TPASK model: in this review, it is also evidenced the design and implementation of the TPASK model, based on the TPACK model (Mishra and Koehler 2006). The TPASK model is used for the science teachers’ PD and the integration of ICT in educational contexts (Fig. 2).

    The TPASK model extends the technological knowledge of the science teacher in a multidisciplinary perspective, i.e. developing the TPASK model in science teacher training requires a curricular system that treats all three components in an integrated manner. According to Athanassios (2010), the trainer of teachers should make the connections between content, pedagogy and technology explicit and clarify the boundaries between them in a meaningful way for science teachers and classes. With this perspective, Table 7 presents many PD programmes based on TPACK model (Athanassios (2010; Chan and Yung 2015; Chen et al. 2015; Lin et al. 2012; Yeh et al. 2014b), i.e. TPACK model has been consolidated in different studies and became one of the main theoretical basis for the science teachers’ PD (Annetta et al. 2012; Janssen and Lazonder 2015; Maeng et al. 2013; Marino et al. 2012; Yeh et al. 2014b).

  3. (3)

    PLC-METS: Other PD model characterised in Table 7 is the study by Kim et al. (2012) that presents the implementation of a programme based on a “professional learning community”. This programme uses research actions, the infusion of scientific research and the use of technological information to build the scientific understanding and teaching practices of science teachers at the start of their careers (pre-service and in-service teachers). This learning community is formed by teacher trainers, researchers, scientists, teachers of basic education, educators, etc., through their interactions and collaborations to share practices, beliefs and knowledge (Kim et al. 2012). In the “Virtual Professional Learning Communities” perspective, the PD can be developed by collaborative “Professional Learning Communities (PLCs)” and that it can be effective in improving instruction and student achievement. Still, most PD is offered as short-duration workshops that are not effective in changing practice. Barriers to the implementation of PLCs include lack of shared meeting time and a shortage of teachers who share the same subject areas or common goals and interests. McConnell et al. (2012) propose a solution, video-conferencing to foster the sense of community needed for PLCs to be effective and Chen et al. (2015) used wikis and collaborative learning for science teachers’ PD. The wiki and collaborative learning helped in-service teachers exchange and elaborate ideas related to the development of TPACK.

    For us, these programmes based on professional learning community model may present certain obstacles. The first is the use of the wiki tool, once that past studies have shown that only a proper application of wiki can benefit both students and teachers (Chen et al. 2015; Kim et al. 2012). The second is the need for good planning to involve the school community in the various proposed actions because not everyone is or was prepared to use the various educational technologies involved (Kim et al. 2012; McConnell et al. 2012).

  4. (4)

    Resource-based e-learning environments (RBeLEs): another model of this review is the online resources integration into primary-school science classes and divided into: (a) creation of contexts, (b) selection of resources, (c) use of tools and (d) adoption of scaffolds. So (2012) provides a proposal of systematic and detailed guidelines to teachers for the construction of environments based on e-learning to assist student learning using resources available on the Internet. The RBeLEs model by So (2012) not only includes elaborations on each of the features but also addresses the connection of these resources to the motivation and cognitive involvement of students in learning environments.

  5. (5)

    System of Collective Activity (SCA): supported by activity theory model “represents a unit of analysis in the framework of ‘object-oriented, collective, and culturally mediated human activity, or activity system’” (Engeström 1999, p. 328). For the use of ICTE tools during the process of teacher training, Kahveci et al. (2008) use this model which consists of the following inter-related elements: (a) mediating artefacts, (b) subject, (c) rules, (d) communities, (e) division of labour, (f) object and (g) outcome.

  6. (6)

    Model of Teacher ICT Integration: identifies four types of teachers in relation to the integration of ICT in their practice: (a) a contented traditionalist (CT), (b) a selective adopter (SA), (c) an inadvertent user (IU) and (4) a creative adapter (CA). This model evaluates the teacher’s practices and difficulties regarding the use of ICT tools in the classroom (Donnelly et al. 2011).

  7. (7)

    Framework for pedagogical practices related to ICT use: after an analysis of the studies on the use of ICT tools in science education and a previous survey of the frameworks and models that classified the use of computers, Webb (2005) proposed a model for examining the pedagogical practices of teachers that involve the use of ICT tools and the affordancesFootnote 2 for ICT-rich environments that can support student science learning. The affordances identified in the study by Webb (2005) support student learning through four effects: they promote cognitive acceleration, they allow a variety of experiences for the students to relate science to their and other real-world experiences, they extend self-management and they facilitate the collection and presentation of data. The model of Webb (2005) incorporates the pedagogical reasoning of the teacher (Shulman 1986) with his knowledge, beliefs and values and the importance of ICT for learning.

    In short, in this section, we have tried to redeem certain possible models to be developed for the integration of ICT in the context of teacher training programmes and science classes. We did not analyse the limitations of such models and their real impact, but it is important to note that they can be extended to other contexts that deserve to be examined in greater detail because they are guides both for training courses for science teachers and for the development of scientific activities in the school context. For example, the models of Ling Wong et al. (2006), Marshall and Young (2006) and Syh-Jong (2008) were developed in the context of pre-service teacher training. The models of Athanassios (2010) and Kim et al. (2012) were developed in the context of in-service teacher training. Other models have already been developed and analysed in the context of science teachers trying to overcome their traditional teaching practices (Donnelly et al. 2011; Kahveci et al. 2008; So 2012; Webb 2005), but each model can be associated with a new education and training model or programme, and all can be used and researched in other contexts: training and application in science classes.

Fig. 2
figure 2

The framework of technological pedagogical science knowledge (TPASK). Source: Athanassios (2010, p. 1261)

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Teaching and Learning Approaches Based on Inquiry

This sub-category shows that some theoretical frameworks present a contemporary proposal for the development of the science curriculum, the inquiry-based instruction. This proposal appears in teacher education, and its development in the classroom is supported by the use of ICTE tools and digital resources.

Table 8 (see “main theoretical references”) presents the main works that include this design in their frameworks. We also found studies on inquiry-based instruction that use simulations and software simulations, virtual labs (Donnelly et al. 2012; Valtonen et al. 2013; Zacharia 2003), hypermedia, multimedia, the Internet, wikis, remote labs, Smartphone, tablets (Kim and Herbert 2012; Songer et al. 2002; Ucar and Trundle 2011) and other digital technologies that support the implementation of inquiry-based activities (Çalik et al. 2014; Maeng et al. 2013).

Table 8 Summary of studies that present “teaching and learning based on inquiry”
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When considering “inquiry-based instruction”, it is important to remember that there are different interpretations of scientific research in the community of scientists and science teachers. Inquiry-based instruction is no longer focused on training scientists, as it was in the 1960s. Currently, inquiry-based instruction is used for other purposes, such as promoting scientific literacy; developing cognitive skills in students; forming hypotheses, recording results, analysing data and developing the ability to construct arguments; reflecting on socio-scientific questions; discussing on the Nature of Science (NOS) and the role of the scientist; developing experience with specific software and programmes (Kim and Herbert 2012; Ucar and Trundle 2011); among other purposes.

For the development of this approach to education and teacher training, we can cite certain studies that appeared in our review and that are guiding the PD. For the development of the inquiry-based instruction in a PD programme, one can think about using the Web (Ucar and Trundle 2011) through the partnership between science teachers and scientists in the establishment of “practice communities” or “Inquiry Resources Collection (IRC)” based on wiki and developed by scientists to support the elaboration of investigative activities by graduate science teachers. For Kim and Herbert (2012, p. 504), “the collaborative managing and sharing of knowledge in a PD program via a wiki environment is the key to developing a practical resource for novice teachers teaching scientific inquiry”.

In this sense, Donnelly et al. (2012) observe that the investigative activities mediated by digital technologies offer potential learning gains, give independence in space and time, are inexpensive and easy to access and, in general, shift the focus of learning from teachers to students (Donnelly et al. 2012).

The science teacher-training programme, in Çalik et al. (2014), use the Technology-embedded scientific inquiry (TESI) model of Ebenezer et al. (2011) on senior science student teachers’ (SSSTs) to identify self-perceptions of fluency with Innovative Technologies (InT) (e.g. online discussion boards, TESI website, sensors, probes, Logger Pro software, GPS) and Scientific Inquiry Abilities. We can use the TESI model by Ebenezer et al. (2011) in PD courses focusing on involvements in three hallmarks: (1) technology-embedded scientific conceptualization that incorporates understanding subject matter knowledge, testing and clarifying conceptual ideas; (2) technology-embedded scientific investigation that focuses on developing students’ critical abilities in scientific inquiry through their engagement with socio-scientific issues and (3) technology-embedded scientific communication that contains communicating research process, research results and knowledge claims via classroom discourse and/or online/offline dialogues (Çalik et al. 2014; Ebenezer et al. 2011).

Some studies (Maeng et al. 2013; Valtonen et al. 2013) inform science teacher educators’ development of content-specific, technology-enhanced learning opportunities that prepare pre-service teachers for the responsibility of supporting inquiry instruction with technology, facilitate the transition to student-centred instruction and support TPACK development.

Despite the advantages offered by these studies in Table 8, the integration of ICTE tools and digital resources from an inquiry-based perspective is a complex process of change to teaching practices that requires a careful analysis by researchers, teachers and educators because not everyone knows how to do it (Donnelly et al. 2011). We noticed in the theoretical frameworks of these studies that the use of digital technologies, along with inquiry-based science education, proposes a more collaborative educational model, one that is student-centred and that moves away from the idea of the “traditional scientific method”. We also deepen the effects evidenced in studies that use this type of education, i.e. better understanding of scientific reasoning, conceptual evolution, motivation, engagement, thinking skills, the promotion of scientific argument, changes in attitudes in relation to education and science, learning, collaborative work, etc.

Theoretical Frameworks That Emphasise Cognitive Processes

Constructivist Approaches

In our review, we also found a group of studies that present theoretical frameworks related to theories or cognitive characteristics, mainly socio-cognitive, and their possible relationship with digital technology and which are exemplified in “main theoretical references” of Table 9. At times, discussions were presented concerning what is happening in the mind of the student when he or she uses educational technologies to understand phenomena and scientific concepts.

Table 9 Summary of the main trends concerning theoretical frameworks with the “constructivist approach”
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The studies in this group include the following in their theoretical frameworks: constructivist teaching, computer-supported collaborative learning environment, teacher factors associated with innovative pedagogical and use of ICT, socio-scientific and sustainability issues and situated learning theory on pre-service science teachers’ use of technology (Table 9). In the studies by Voogt (2010) and Yarden and Yarden (2011), there is a tendency to claim that, to develop any scientific content using digital technologies with the purpose of promoting learning, we should also take into account the perspectives and ideas of the teacher to guarantee that the objective is achieved. For example, the theoretical framework in the study by Yarden and Yarden (2011) presents three perspectives of constructivist teaching supported by digital technologies: (1) the cognitive basis of learning using visualisation tools, (2) the role of the teacher and the use of animation in the classroom to promote meaningful learning from multimedia environments and (3) the importance of understanding the perspective of the teacher to develop animations in the classroom to promote effective implementation.

Other aspects to consider about the PD of science teachers and the constructivist perspective are related to the potential of the Internet to provide team activities and collaborative learning (Jang 2006), to the discussion of socio-scientific issues using a “multimedia environment” in science classes (Klosterman et al. 2012) and the effectiveness of a PD programme aligned with the theoretical framework of the situated learning theory on pre-service science teachers’ use of technology (Bell et al. 2013). In this sense, it is suggested that science teachers’ trainers use various digital resources to facilitate the PD (audio, video, the Internet, etc.) to explore socio-scientific and sustainability issues and to develop team activities and collaborative learning, and use the situated learning theory to provide an effective structure for preparing pre-service teachers to integrate technology in ways that support the PD.

To understand the constructivist perspective, the theoretical framework of the study by Voogt (2010) compare traditional and constructivist practices mediated by different digital technologies (Tondeur et al. 2008; Voogt 2009). We verify that teachers who mix traditional and constructivist educational practices, in comparison with teachers who have only a traditional or constructivist pedagogical orientation, used computers more frequently in three ways: as an informational tool, as a learning tool and as a tool for basic skills (Voogt 2010). The teachers with constructivist concepts used the computer more as a tool for information in comparison with the teachers who have traditional conceptions. Note that the combination of a traditional conception of teaching and a more constructivist approach enables the use of ICT in various ways in comparison to other forms of teaching. Voogt (2009) also reinforces this comparison because, for this author, the traditional teaching paradigm still dominates the pedagogical practices of science teachers. Science teachers who use ICT more widely and extensively have a stronger focus on innovative directions in education, compared to their colleagues who use ICT non-extensively (Voogt 2009).

In summary, we can observe in Table 9 that the effective use of ICTE tools and digital resources in science classes is associated with the digital skills of teachers and their extensive involvement using them, even when there is a mix of pedagogically innovative and traditional actions. We suggest that future studies should deepen the discussion on this mix of teaching approaches beyond the three points for the effective use of digital technologies in the school context (involvement, leadership and skills) because it is important to know the effectiveness of digital tools in science education.

Approaches That Emphasise “conceptual knowledge”

The articles in this group include an apparent relationship between “conceptual change” and “conceptual understanding” promoted by the use of ICTE tools and digital resources. The main reference for the theoretical frameworks in the group of studies in this sub-category consists in presenting to the science teachers the potential of digital technologies to promote the conceptual understanding of scientific contents (Ling Wong et al. 2006; Liu and Hmelo-Silver 2009; Zacharia 2007).

Table 10 presents the studies that emphasise conceptual knowledge and conceptual change, but the characteristics of this relationship remain uncertain (see “main theoretical references”).

Table 10 Summary of studies that present “approaches that emphasise conceptual knowledge”
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Current research in science education has demonstrated that the difficulties in the understanding of scientific concepts are common to all ages and levels (Bell and Trundle 2008). Students of any age go to their science classes with ideas/concepts that differ fundamentally from those that are considered to be more accepted in the scientific fields (Liu and Hmelo-Silver 2009). The main reason lies in the fact that students construct their conceptual knowledge of the physical world, interpretations and reasonable explanations of how and why things work over many years through their experience in their everyday worlds (Posner et al. 1982).

Studies that use various digital technologies have been conducted with the objective of achieving “cognitive conflicts” in students to promote conceptual intuitive change and/or “conceptual understanding” (Bell and Trundle 2008; Zacharia 2007). As we examined the theoretical frameworks of the articles in this sub-category, we found some studies that had the objective of investigating the “change” or “understanding” of scientific concepts using certain ICT tools during the training process (pre- and in-service) of science teachers. For example, the study by Zacharia (2007) investigated the change in the conceptual understanding of electrical circuits of 88 pre-service teachers by combining ER with EV. The results indicated that the combination of ER and EV improved conceptual understanding of the future teachers more than the use of ER alone, giving special emphasis to the use of EV.

The theoretical framework by Ling Wong et al. (2006) and Geelan (2012) also discussed the topic of “proposed models of training and use of digital technologies” and, however, presents also reflections on the “conception change” in teaching practices through digital resources.

Despite the recurring criticisms of the attitude of the “conceptual change model” in literature (Moreira and Greca 2003), we found research within this line that links the “conceptual knowledge” of teachers by means of educational technologies (Liu and Hmelo-Silver 2009). Although numerous studies show that there is no conceptual change in the minds of those who are learning, the expression is already entrenched in the literature, and its use is widespread (Mortimer 1995). It is important we being to reflect on the possibility of abandoning the term “conceptual change” and models that suggest it (in terms of “conceptual replacement”) at all levels of teacher training and basic education. Currently, the most promising ideas adopt other terms, such as evolution, development, enrichment and the conceptual discrimination of meanings because they do not involve a change in concepts or scientific meanings (Moreira and Greca 2003).

Approaches Not Determined or Open

This group of studies is not part of our system of categories (Table 3), but it has studies with a theoretical framework that is more open, that contain multiple elements without deepening them or that even lack a theoretical framework that supports the study (Table 11). These studies are related to teacher education and teacher PD.

Table 11 Summary of studies that present “approaches not determined or open”
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Some studies are descriptions of empirical research with an emphasis on methodology and results (de Winter et al. 2010; Eastwood and Sadler 2013; Ekanayake and Wishart 2014; Skinner and Preece 2003; Sorensen et al. 2007; Twidle et al. 2006). Others are descriptions of projects and training courses for teachers (Pombo et al. 2012; Price et al. 2013; Rodrigues 2006; Rogers and Newton 2001). For example, the study by Skinner and Preece (2003) presents the AstraZeneca-Exeter Science through Telematics (AZEST) project in which that the Internet is a good communication channel for the supply of materials.

The study by De Winter et al. (2010) describes how teachers and students perceive the use of such technologies in science classes, they found that the technology does not assume a transformational effect on teaching and learning. They simply accepted emerging technologies as “normal” in the lives of young people. The studies of Price et al. (2013) and Ekanayake and Wishart (2014) explore how mobile phones can support science teachers’ pedagogical practices throughout the cycle of planning, teaching and evaluation.

Neither of these studies, cited in Table 11, deepens the references that cite other the studies. However, it is important to emphasise that, despite the absence of a theoretical study, the results of the surveys of these studies are important because they make significant contributions to teacher training and the use of ICT in science education.

Summary and Conclusions

This study aimed to characterise the research on the digital technologies (ICTE tools and digital resources) in the PD of science teachers and the main trends concerning the theoretical frameworks (theoretical foundation, literature review or background) of these studies with regard to the role of educational technologies in the training and their use by science teachers.

Seeking to understand how to characterise the research on the science teachers’ PD programmes with respect to the use of different digital resources, we organised the studies according to “pre- and in-service teacher training”. The group that stood out the most was the application, development and conceptions (ADC) of science teachers concerning the use of digital technologies, i.e. use, creation and conceptions of digital resources in the school context. Within the context of digital technologies’ training and use, we found that technological tools and digital resources are diverse and that the debate intensifies on how to integrate these resources in the classroom as mediating tools for the construction of school scientific knowledge. We have noticed in the identified studies that the appearance of digital technologies in teachers’ PD programmes, to improve science education, is commonly seen as possibility of an innovation in science teaching. In order to incorporate the innovations learnt in these courses in classroom, it is important to reformulate them because teachers often do not see clearly the benefits of these innovations for their PD (El-Hani and Greca 2012). Similar to what Stylianidou et al. (2005) found, in the studies that we analysed the factors that favour or hinder the adoption of computer tools in science classes were related to the quality of the materials (development), the teachers’ beliefs and the contexts in which they work (conceptions) and finally, time is needed for teachers to change their practices (application). Most studies cite the science teachers’ PD programmes as one-time, short-duration workshops and presentation mandated by school leaders for all teachers, which have been inadequate strategies for bringing about change in teacher practices (El-Hani and Greca 2012; McConnell et al. 2012).

The main purpose of the characterisation of theoretical frameworks was to construct a map of the theoretical trends concerning the use of different educational technologies in the context of science learning and teaching. The trends of these theoretical frameworks demonstrate that this issue needs more attention because, instead of a single “theoretical framework”, several possibilities of “theoretical relations” were identified.

We also seek to understood the major trends concerning the theoretical frameworks of research on teacher training and the use of ICTE tools and digital resources, and we can see that the studies are focused on five themes arranged in three groups: (1) theoretical frameworks that emphasise the technological object: emphasis on the role of different digital technologies (ICTE tools and digital resources); (2) theoretical frameworks that emphasise prospects of curricular renewal: proposal of models for the PD and use of digital technologies; inquiry-based teaching and learning; and (3) theoretical frameworks that emphasise cognitive processes: constructivist approach and approaches that emphasise conceptual knowledge. We also examined a group of articles with theoretical frameworks that contain multiple elements without deepening them (11 studies located—14.5%). It is worth noting that some studies presented more than one theoretical trend, i.e. the process of information categorisation was guided by the textual discursive analysis (TDA) of Moraes and Galiazzi (2011), since it offers researchers a way of analysing production from constructions of categories that do not necessarily need to be mutually exclusive. For example, the study by Ling Wong et al. (2006) includes a theoretical framework concerning “conceptual understanding” (theoretical frameworks that emphasise cognitive processes) and a proposal of a training model: “Five dimensions of Kember’s framework” (theoretical frameworks that emphasise prospects of curricular renewal).

We also identified in the studies analysed that teaching and learning approaches based on inquiry, constructivism and conceptual knowledge promoted by the use of ICTE tools and digital resources are important to the teachers’ PD. Despite the advantages offered by these studies, the integration of ICTE tools and digital resources from a perspective based on inquiry, constructivism and conceptual knowledge is a complex process of change to teaching practices that requires a careful analysis by researchers, teachers and educators because not everyone knows how to do it, i.e. some theoretical frameworks propose a more collaborative educational model, one that is student-centred and that moves away from the idea of the “traditional scientific method”. We also identified the effects evidenced in studies that use this type of education, i.e. better understanding of scientific reasoning, conceptual evolution, motivation, engagement, thinking skills, the promotion of scientific argument, changes in attitudes in relation to education and science, learning, collaborative work, etc.

Since new PD proposals are emerging with the objective of minimising such difficulties, this analysis becomes a helpful tool to restructure those proposals and we expect to contribute with some insights to help to build or restructure training courses in PD for science teachers. In this sense, the development of this study was justified because we consider it important to know the theoretical foundations of studies on training process and application of ICT in science education to see what has been investigated on this topic; however, other researches could be developed, i.e. what are the positive and negative effects of PD models for the use of ICT? How do the theoretical foundations of studies on PD and the use of ICTs influence on the quality of training? Finally, we are aware that the decision to limit the number of journals and to limit the search only to the ERIC databases (see Table 2) may ultimately limit this study due to the potential loss of studies published in different journals. We have not consulted secondary articles in the “references” of the selected studies, so we know that there is a risk that we have not reached all the articles published on the topic. Future studies may focus on a topic of a systematic review and expand our search to other databases and other journals.