Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Measuring precarious employment in the European Working Conditions Survey: psychometric properties and construct validity in Spain

  • Published:
Quality & Quantity Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Monitoring precarious employment (PE) is crucial to design and evaluate policies tailored to enhance the quality of employment and to achieve more decent and sustainable labour markets. In that regard, the construction of theory-based multidimensional measurement instruments with data derived from well-established and periodically-conducted surveys stands out as an insightful opportunity to acquire so. Accordingly, this study aims to adapt the Employment Precariousness Scale (EPRES) to the available information in the European Working Conditions Survey VI (EWCS-2015), and to explore the psychometric properties and construct validity of the ensuing instrument, namely EPRES-E, in Spain. 13 items sorted in six dimensions (temporariness, disempowerment, vulnerability, exercise of rights, uncertain working times and wages) shaped the EPRES-E. In a sample of 2442 formal employees residing in Spain, item- and scale-level analyses were performed alongside omega reliability coefficients and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA). The scale exhibited good psychometric properties and reliability (ω = 0.80 for the EPRES-E score and near or above 0.70 for all subscales excepting “exercise of rights”). The factor structure was confirmed by CFA [χ2 (df) = 530.432 (58), p < 0.0001; CFI = 0.964; TLI = 0.951; RMSEA (95% CI) = 0.067 (0.062–0.073); all paths statistically significant]. Acceptability, however, was hampered by the large amount of non-response in the “earnings” variables (20.97%). In sum, the EPRES-E constitutes a promising instrument for the measurement of PE over time in Spain. Further studies should explore its comparability in the rest of the countries included in the EWCS as a first step towards the achievement of a European-wide monitoring system of the phenomenon.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Note: EPRES-E, Employment Precariousness Scale in the European Working Conditions Survey; PE, precarious employment; T, temporariness; D, disempowerment; V, vulnerability; ER, exercise of rights; UWT, uncertain working times; W, wages; Fair treat, fair treatment; Sched. unpred., schedule unpredictability; WT, working times

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Amable, M.: La precariedad laboral y su impacto sobre la salud. Un estudio en trabajadores asalariados en España. PhD dissertation, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona (2006)

  • Anxo, D., O’Reilly, J.: Working-time regimes and transitions in comparative perspective. In: O’Reilly, J., Cebrián, I., Lallement, M. (eds.) Working Time Changes: Social Integration Through Transitional Labour Markets, pp. 61–90. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  • Arlinghaus, A., Bohle, P., Iskra-Golec, I., Jansen, N., Jay, S., Rotenberg, L.: Working Time Society consensus statements: evidence-based effects of shift work and non-standard working hours on workers, family and community. Ind. Health 57(3), 184–200 (2019)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barbier, J.C.: La précarité, una catégorie française à l’épreuve de la comparaison internationale. Rev. Fr. Sociol. 46(2), 351–371 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benach, J., Puig-Barrachina, V., Vives, A., Tarafa, G., Muntaner, C.: The challenge of monitoring employment-related health inequalities. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 66(12), 1085–1087 (2012)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benach, J., Muntaner, C., Solar, O., Santana, V., Quinlan, M., EMCONET: Employment, Work and Health Inequalities: A Global Perspective. Icaria, Barcelona (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  • Benach, J., Julià, M., Tarafa, G., Mir, J., Molinero, E., Vives, A.: Multidimensional measurement of precarious employment: social distribution and its association with health in Catalonia (Spain). Gac. Sanit. 29(5), 375–378 (2015)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benach, J., Vives, A., Tarafa, G., Delclos, C., Muntaner, C.: What should we know about precarious employment and health in 2025? Framing the agenda for the next decade of research. Int. J. Epidemiol. 45(1), 232–238 (2016)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beneyto, P.J., Alós, R., Jódar, P., Vidal, S.: La afiliación sindical en la crisis. Estructura, evolución y trayectoria. Sociol. Trab. Nueva Época 87, 25–44 (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  • Bodin, T., Çağlayan, Ç., Garde, A.H., Gnesi, M., Jonsson, J., Kiran, S., Kreshpaj, B., Leinonen, T., Mehlum, I.S., Nena, E., Orellana, C., Peckham, T., Seixas, N., Vanroelen, C., Julià, M.: Precarious employment in occupational health—an OMEGA-NET working group position paper. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health (2019). https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.3860

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowles, S., Edwards, R.: Understanding Capitalism. Competition, Command and Change in the US Economy. Harper and Row Publishers, New York (1985)

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyle, G.J.: Does item homogeneity indicate internal consistency or item redundancy in psychometric scales? Pers. Individ. Differ. 12(3), 291–294 (1991)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, C.: Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Applied Research. Guilford, New York (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  • Burgess, J., Campbell, I.: The nature and dimensions of precarious employment in Australia. Labour Ind. 8(3), 5–21 (1998)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, I., Burgess, J.: Patchy progress? Two decades of research on precariousness and precarious work in Australia. Labour Ind. J. Soc. Econ. Relat. Work 28(1), 48–67 (2018)

    Google Scholar 

  • Cano, E.: Formas, percepciones y consecuencias de la precariedad. Mientras Tanto 93, 67–81 (2004)

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, F.F.: What happens if we compare chopsticks with forks? The impact of making inappropriate comparisons in cross-cultural research. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 95(5), 1005 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, E.M.: Sociological theories of low-wage work. J. Hum. Behav. Soc. Environ. 24(1), 38–50 (2014)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, J.: Flexible employment: implications for gender and citizenship in the European Union. New Polit. Economy 3(2), 261–277 (1998)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duell, N.: Defining and Assessing Precarious Employment in Europe: A Review of Main Studies and Survey. Economic Research and Consultancy, Munich (2004)

    Google Scholar 

  • Eurofound: European Working Conditions Survey 2015 Technical Report. https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/sites/default/files/ef_survey/field_ef_documents/6th_ewcs_-_technical_report.pdf (2017a). Accessed 24 June 2019

  • Eurofound: Sixth European Working Conditions Survey—Overview Report (2017 Update). Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (2017b)

    Google Scholar 

  • Eurofound: European Working Conditions Survey. https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/es/surveys/european-working-conditions-surveys-ewcs. (2020). Accessed 27 Feb 2020

  • European Parliament: Precarious Employment in Europe. Part 1: Patterns, Trends and Policy Strategy. Policy Department A, Brussels (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  • Fagan, C., Norman, H., Smith, M., González-Menéndez, M.: In Search of Good Quality Part-Time Employment. International Labour Organization, Geneva (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  • Gevaert, J., De Moortel, D., Vanroelen, C.: Does employment status matter for job quality? Working Paper. In: Eiffe, F., Parent-Thirion, A., Biletta, A. (eds.) Employment Status and Job Quality. Publications Office of the European Union, Brussels (2018)

  • Glauber, R.K.: Wanting More But Working Less: Involuntary Part-Time Employment and Economic Vulnerability, pp. 199–205. The Carsey School of Public Policy Repository, New Hampshire (2013)

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Goffin, R.D., Jackson, D.N.: The structural validity of the index of organizational reactions. Multivar. Behav. Res. 23, 327–347 (1988)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gould, S.J.: The Mismeasure of Man. Norton & Company, New York (1981)

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, F., Mostafa, T.: Trends in Job Quality in Europe: A Report Based on the Fifth European Working Conditions Survey. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (2012)

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., Mullen, M.: Structural equation modelling: guidelines for determining model fit. Electron. J. Bus. Res. Methods 6, 53–60 (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  • Horemans, J., Marx, I., Nolan, B.: Hanging in, but only just: part-time employment and in-work poverty throughout the crisis. IZA J. Eur. Lab. Stud. 5(1), 5–19 (2016)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Instituto Nacional de Estadística: Encuesta de Población Activa. http://www.ine.es (2019). Accessed 18 June 2019

  • International Labor Organization: Decent Work. https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/decent-work/lang–en/index.htm (2020a). Accessed 4 Mar 2020

  • International Labor Organization: Employment in the informal economy. Key Indicators of the Labour Market (KILM). http://kilm.ilo.org (2020b). Accessed 4 Mar 2020

  • Jonsson, J., Vives, A., Benach, J., Kjellberg, K., Selander, J., Johansson, G., Bodin, T.: Measuring precarious employment in Sweden: translation, adaptation and psychometric properties of the Employment Precariousness Scale (EPRES). BMJ Open 9, e029577 (2019)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Julià, M., Vives, A., Tarafa, G., Benach, J.: Changing the way we understand precarious employment and health: precarisation affects the entire salaried population. Saf. Sci. 100, 66–73 (2017)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Julià, M., Belvis, F., Vives, A., Tarafa, G., Benach, J.: Informal employees in the European Union: working conditions, employment precariousness and health. J. Public Health 41(2), 141–151 (2019)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalleberg, A.: Non-standard employment relations: part-time, temporary and contract work. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 26, 341–365 (2000)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalleberg, A.: Precarious Lives: Job Insecurity and Well-Being in Rich Democracies. Polity Press, Cambridge (2018)

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, E.S., Yoon, M.: Testing measurement invariance: a comparison of multiple-group categorical CFA and IRT. Struct. Equ. Model. 18, 212–228 (2011)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R.B.: Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, 3rd edn. Guildford Press, New York (2010)

    Google Scholar 

  • Köhler, H.D., Jiménez-Calleja, J.P.: Spain: a peripheral economy and a vulnerable trade union movement. In: Lehndorff, S., Dribbusch, H., Schulten, T. (eds.) Rough Waters—European Trade Unions in a Time of Crises, pp. 65–83. ETUI, Brussels (2017)

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreshpaj, B., Orellana, C., Burström, B., Davis, L., Hemmingsson, T., Johansson, G., Kjellberg, K., Jonsson, J., Wegman, D.H., Bodin, T.: What is precarious employment? A systematic review of definitions and operationalizations from quantitative and qualitative studies. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health (2020). https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.3875

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewchuk, W.: Precarious jobs: where are they, and how do they affect well-being? Econ. Labour Relat. Rev. 28(3), 402–419 (2017)

    Google Scholar 

  • Matilla-Santander, N., Martín-Sánchez, J.C., González-Marrón, A., Cartanyà-Hueso, A., Lidón-Moyano, C., Martínez-Sánchez, J.M.: Precarious employment, unemployment and their association with health-related outcomes in 35 European countries: a cross-sectional study. Crit. Public Health (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/09581596.2019.1701183

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muntaner, C.: Global precarious employment and health inequalities: working conditions, social class, or precariat? Cad. Saúde Públ. 32, e00162215 (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  • Muñoz-Bustillo, R., Fernández-Macías, E., Antón, J.I., Esteve, F.: Indicators of Job Quality in the European Union. European Parliament, Brussels (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, B.: A general structural equation model with dichotomous, ordered categorical and continuous latent variable indicators. Psychometrika 49(1), 115–132 (1984)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nardo, M., Saisana, M., Saltelli, A., Tarantola, S., Hoffman, A., Giovannini, E.: Handbook on Constructing Composite Indicators: Methodology and User Guide. OECD Publishing, Paris (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Carroll, A.: Working Time, Knowledge Work and Post-industrial Society: Unpredictable Work. Palgrave Macmillan, New York (2015)

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • OECD: Temporary Employment (Indicator). https://doi.org/10.1787/75589b8a-en (2019a). Accessed 17 June 2019

  • OECD: Wage Levels (Indicator). https://doi.org/10.1787/0a1c27bc-en (2019b). Accessed 17 June 2019

  • Owen, J.D.: Why part-time workers tend to be in low-wage jobs? Mon. Lab. Rev. 101, 11 (1978)

    Google Scholar 

  • Peetz, D., Townsend, K., Russell, B., Houghton, C., Allan, C., Fox, A.: Race against time: extended hours in Australia. Aust. Bull. Labour 29(2), 126–143 (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  • Porthé, V., Ahonen, E., Vazquez, M.L., Pope, C., Agudelo, A.A., Garcia, A.M., et al.: Extending a model of precarious employment: a qualitative study of immigrant workers in Spain. Am. J. Ind. Med. 53(4), 417–424 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preedy, V.R., Watson, R.R.: Handbook of Disease Burdens and Quality of Life Measures. Springer, New York (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  • Puig-Barrachina, V., Malmusi, D., Martinez, J.M., Benach, J.: Monitoring social determinants of health inequalities: the impact of unemployment among vulnerable groups. Int. J. Health Serv. 41, 459–482 (2011)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Puig-Barrachina, V., Vanroelen, C., Vives, A., Martínez, J.M., Muntaner, C., Levecque, K., et al.: Measuring employment precariousness in the European Working Conditions Survey: the social distribution in Europe. Work 49(1), 143–161 (2014)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R Core Team: R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna. https://www.R-project.org/ (2017). Accessed 15 June 2019

  • Raykov, T.: Estimation of congeneric scale reliability using covariance structure analysis with nonlinear constraints. Br. J. Math. Stat. Psychol. 54(2), 315–323 (2001)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodgers, G.: Precarious work in Western Europe. In: Rodgers, G., Rodgers, J. (eds.) Precarious Jobs in Labour Market Regulation: The Growth of Atypical Employment in Western Europe, pp. 1–16. International Institute for Labour Studies, Geneva (1989)

    Google Scholar 

  • Smits, I., Van Gyes, G.: Deliverable 21.4: European Measurement of Working Conditions and Related Policies: Inventory and Assessment of Available Data Tools. FP7 InGRID Project, Leuven (2017)

    Google Scholar 

  • Standing, G.: The Precariat: The New Dangerous Class. Bloomsbury Academic, London (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  • StataCorp: Stata Statistical Software: Release 13. Stata Press, College Station (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  • Tucker, D.: ‘Precarious’ Non-standard Employment—A Review of the Literature. Working Paper. Labour Market Policy Group, Department of Labour, New Zealand (2002)

  • Turrell, G.: Income non-reporting: implications for health inequalities research. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 54, 207–214 (2000)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Aerden, A., Moors, G., Levecque, K., Vanroelen, C.: Measuring employment arrangements in the European Labour Force: a typological approach. Soc. Indic. Res. 116, 771–791 (2014)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vercruyssen, A., Van Gyes, G.: Measuring Job Quality with EWCS Data: Towards an International Standard for Scale Construction with EWCS 2010 (Working Paper M21.13a). InGRID, Leuven (2017)

  • Vives, A.: A multidimensional approach to precarious employment: measurement, association with poor mental health and prevalence in the Spanish workforce. PhD dissertation, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona (2010)

  • Vives, A., Amable, M., Ferrer, M., Moncada, S., Llorens, C., Muntaner, C., et al.: The Employment Precariousness Scale (EPRES): psychometric properties of a new tool for epidemiological studies among waged and salaried workers. Occup. Environ. Med. 67(8), 548–555 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vives, A., González, F., Moncada, S., Llorens, S., Benach, J.: Measuring precarious employment in times of crisis: the revised Employment Precariousness Scale (EPRES) in Spain. Gac. Sanit. 29(5), 379–382 (2015)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vives, A., González-López, F., Solar, O., Bernales-Baskai, P., González, M.J., Benach, J.: Precarious employment in Chile: psychometric properties of the chilean version of Employment Precariousness Scale in private sector workers. Cad. Saude Publ. 33, e00156215 (2017)

    Google Scholar 

  • Ware, J.E., Gandek, G.: Methods for testing data quality, scaling assumptions, and reliability: the IQOLA project approach. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 51(11), 945–952 (1998)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang-Wallentin, F., Jöreskog, K.G., Luo, H.: Confirmatory factor analysis of ordinal variables with misspecified models. Struct. Equ. Model. Multidiscip. J. 17(3), 392–423 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The research leading to these results has been supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities under Grant Agreement No. CSO2016-79103R (AEI/FEDER, UE), and partially by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under Grant Agreement No. 730998, InGRID-2—Integrating Research Infrastructure for European expertise on Inclusive Growth from data to policy. Joan Benach gratefully acknowledges the financial support by ICREA under the ICREA Academia program. The authors would like to thank Christophe Vanroelen, Alejandra Vives, Mireia Bolíbar, Pere Jódar, Vanessa Puig-Barrachina, Marisol Ruíz and the rest of the participants in the focus groups for the nourishing discussions.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Research Group on Health Inequalities, Environment, Employment Conditions Network (GREDS-EMCONET), Universitat Pompeu Fabra, 25-27 Ramon Trias Fargas Street, Ciutadella Campus, Mercè Rodoreda Building, 08005, Barcelona, Spain

    Eva Padrosa, Francesc Belvis, Joan Benach & Mireia Julià

  2. Johns Hopkins University – Universitat Pompeu Fabra Public Policy Centre (JHU-UPF PPC), Barcelona, Spain

    Eva Padrosa, Francesc Belvis, Joan Benach & Mireia Julià

  3. Transdisciplinary Research Group on Socioecological Transitions (GinTRANS), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

    Joan Benach

Authors
  1. Eva Padrosa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Francesc Belvis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Joan Benach
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Mireia Julià
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Eva Padrosa.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOCX 40 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Padrosa, E., Belvis, F., Benach, J. et al. Measuring precarious employment in the European Working Conditions Survey: psychometric properties and construct validity in Spain. Qual Quant 55, 543–562 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-020-01017-2

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-020-01017-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation