Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Predictors of Disapproval toward “Hard Drug” Use among High School Seniors in the US

Prevention Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

An Erratum to this article was published on 06 February 2014

Abstract

Attitudes toward drug use strongly determine whether an individual initiates use. Personal disapproval toward the use of a particular drug is strongly protective against use; however, little is known regarding how the use of one drug affects attitudes toward the use of other drugs. Since marijuana use is on the rise in the US and disapproval toward use is decreasing, research is needed to determine whether the use of marijuana or other licit or illicit drugs reduces disapproval toward the use of “harder,” more potentially dangerous drugs. The Monitoring the Future study assesses a national representative sample of high school seniors in the US each year. This study investigated predictors of disapproval toward the use of powder cocaine, crack, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), heroin, amphetamine, and ecstasy (“Molly”) in a weighted sample of 29,054 students from five cohorts (2007–2011). Results suggest that lifetime use of cigarettes and use of more than one hard drug consistently lowered odds of disapproval. In multivariable models, lifetime alcohol use did not affect odds of disapproval and lifetime marijuana use (without the use of any “harder” drugs) lowered odds of disapproval of LSD, amphetamine, and ecstasy, but not cocaine, crack, or heroin. In conclusion, marijuana use within itself is not a consistent risk factor for lower disapproval toward the use of harder drugs. Cigarette and hard drug use, however, are more consistent risk factors. As marijuana prevalence increases and policy becomes more lenient toward recreational and medicinal use, public health and policy experts need to ensure that attitudinal-related risk does not increase for the use of other drugs.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aleksander, I. (2013). Molly: Pure, but not so simple. The New York Times, June 23, p. ST1.

  • Bayer, R., & Stuber, J. (2006). Tobacco control, stigma, and public health: Rethinking the relations. American Journal of Public Health, 96, 47–50.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bachman, J. G., Johnston, L. D., & O’Malley, P. M. (1990). Explaining the recent decline in cocaine use among young adults: Further evidence that perceived risks and disapproval lead to reduced drug use. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 31, 173–184.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bachman, J. G., Johnston, L. D., & O’Malley, P. M. (1998). Explaining recent increases in students’ marijuana use: Impacts of perceived risks and disapproval, 1976 through 1996. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 887–892.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Best, D., Rawaf, S., Rowley, J., Floyd, K., Manning, V., & Strang, J. (2000). Drinking and smoking as concurrent predictors of illicit drug use and positive drug attitudes in adolescents. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 60, 319–321.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caulkins, J. P., Kilmer, B., MacCoun, R. J., Pacula, R. L., & Reuter, P. (2012). Design considerations for legalizing cannabis: Lessons inspired by analysis of California’s Proposition 19. Addiction, 107, 865–871.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cerdá, M., Wall, M., Keyes, K. M., Galea, S., & Hasin, D. (2012). Medical marijuana laws in 50 states: Investigating the relationship between state legalization of medical marijuana and marijuana use, abuse and dependence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 120, 22–27.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Degenhardt, L., Chiu, W. T., Sampson, N., Kessler, R. C., & Anthony, J. C. (2007). Epidemiological patterns of extra-medical drug use in the United States: Evidence from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication, 2001–2003. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 90, 210–223.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Leeuw, R. N., Engels, R. C., Vermulst, A. A., & Scholte, R. H. (2008). Do smoking attitudes predict behaviour? A longitudinal study on the bi-directional relations between adolescents’ smoking attitudes and behaviours. Addiction, 103, 1713–1721.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ditton, J., Farrow, K., Forsyth, A., Hammersley, R., Hunter, G., Lavelle, T., et al. (1991). Scottish cocaine users: Wealthy snorters or delinquent smokers? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 28, 269–276.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fuller, C. M., Borrell, L. N., Latkin, C. A., Galea, S., Ompad, D. C., Strathdee, S. A., et al. (2005). Effects of race, neighborhood, and social network on age at initiation of injection drug use. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 689–695.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gable, R. S. (2004). Comparison of acute lethal toxicity of commonly abused psychoactive substances. Addiction, 99, 686–696.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilmore, N., & Somerville, M. A. (1994). Stigmatization, scapegoating and discrimination in sexually transmitted diseases: Overcoming “them” and “us”. Social Science & Medicine, 39, 1339–1358.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grinspoon, L. (1976). The speed culture: Amphetamine use and abuse in America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Golub, A., Johnson, B. D., & Dunlop, E. (2007). The race/ethnicity disparity in misdemeanor marijuana arrests in New York City. Criminology & Public Policy, 6, 131–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gossop, M., Griffiths, P., Powis, B., & Strang, J. (1994). Cocaine: Patterns of use, route of administration, and severity of dependence. British Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 660–664.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grof, S. (2008). LSD psychotherapy. Sarasota: Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS).

  • Herman-Stahl, M. A., Krebs, C. P., Kroutil, L. A., & Heller, D. C. (2007). Risk and protective factors for methamphetamine use and nonmedical use of prescription stimulants among young adults aged 18 to 25. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 1003–1015.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heeringa, S. G., West, B. T., & Berglund, P. A. (2010). Applied survey data analysis. London: Chapman and Hall.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Ilgen, M. A., Schulenberg, J., Kloska, D. D., Czyz, E., Johnston, L., & O’Malley, P. (2011). Prevalence and characteristics of substance abuse treatment utilization by US adolescents: National data from 1987 to 2008. Addictive Behaviors, 36, 1349–1352.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jeckel, J. F., Katz, D. L., Elmore, J. G., & Wild, D. M. G. (2007). Epidemiology, biostatistics and preventive medicine (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders, Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2012a). Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 1975–2011: Volume I, secondary school students. Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J.G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2012b). Demographic subgroup trends for various licit and illicit drugs, 1975–2011. Monitoring the Future Occasional Paper No. 77.

  • Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2012c). Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 1975–2011: Volume II, college students and adults ages 19–50. Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kam, J. A., Matsunaga, M., Hecht, M. L., & Ndiaye, K. (2009). Extending the theory of planned behavior to predict alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana use among youth of Mexican heritage. Prevention Science, 10, 41–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D., & Yamaguchi, K. (1993). From beer to crack: Developmental patterns of drug involvement. American Journal of Public Health, 83, 851–855.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B., Yamaguchi, K., & Chen, K. (1992). Stages of progression in drug involvement from adolescence to adulthood: Further evidence for the gateway theory. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 53, 447–457.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, K. M., Schulenberg, J. E., O’Malley, P. M., Johnston, L. D., Bachman, J. G., Li, G., et al. (2011). The social norms of birth cohorts and adolescent marijuana use in the United States, 1976–2007. Addiction, 106, 1790–1800.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, K. M., Schulenberg, J. E., O’Malley, P. M., Johnston, L. D., Bachman, J. G., Li, G., et al. (2012). Birth cohort effects on adolescent alcohol use: The influence of social norms from 1976 to 2007. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69, 1304–1313.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kroutil, L. A., Van Brunt, D. L., Herman-Stahl, M. A., Heller, D. C., Bray, R. M., & Penne, M. A. (2006). Nonmedical use of prescription stimulants in the United States. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 84, 135–143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Latkin, C., Davey-Rothwell, M., Yang, J. Y., & Crawford, N. (2012). The relationship between drug user stigma and depression among inner-city drug users in Baltimore, MD. Journal of Urban Health, 90, 147–156.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Malmberg, M., Overbeek, G., Vermulst, A. A., Monshouwer, K., Vollebergh, W. A., & Engels, R. C. (2012). The theory of planned behavior: Precursors of marijuana use in early adolescence? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 123, 22–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martins, S. S., Storr, C. L., Alexandre, P. K., & Chilcoat, H. D. (2008). Do adolescent ecstasy users have different attitudes towards drugs when compared to marijuana users? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 94, 63–72.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCabe, S. E., Teter, C. J., & Boyd, C. J. (2004). The use, misuse and diversion of prescription stimulants among middle and high school students. Substance Use & Misuse, 39, 1095–1116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McElrath, K., & McEvoy, K. (2001). Heroin as evil: Ecstasy users’ perceptions about heroin. Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy, 8, 177–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, C. J., Muetzelfeldt, L., Muetzelfeldt, M., Nutt, D. J., & Curran, H. V. (2010). Harms associated with psychoactive substances: Findings of the UK National Drug Survey. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 24, 147–153.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Musto, D. F. (1999). The American disease: Origins of narcotic control. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nutt, D. J., King, L. A., Phillips, L. D., & Independent Scientific Committee on Drugs. (2010). Drug harms in the UK: A multicriteria decision analysis. Lancet, 376, 1558–1565.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nutt, D., King, L. A., Saulsbury, W., & Blakemore, C. (2007). Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse. Lancet, 369, 1047–1053.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Palamar, J. J. (2012). A pilot study examining perceived rejection and secrecy in relation to illicit drug use and associated stigma. Drug and Alcohol Review, 31, 573–579.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Palamar, J. J., Halkitis, P. N., & Kiang, M. V. (2013). Perceived public stigma and stigmatization in explaining lifetime illicit drug use among emerging adults. Addiction: Research and Theory. doi:10.3109/16066359.2012.762508.

  • Palamar, J. J., Kiang, M. V., & Halkitis, P. N. (2011). Development and psychometric evaluation of scales that assess stigma associated with illicit drug use. Substance Use & Misuse, 46, 1457–1467.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palamar, J. J., Kiang, M. V., & Halkitis, P. N. (2012a). Predictors of stigmatization towards use of various illicit drugs among emerging adults. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 44, 1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palamar, J. J., Kiang, M. V., & Halkitis, P. N. (2012b). Religiosity and exposure to users in explaining illicit drug use among emerging adults. Journal of Religion and Health, in press.

  • Percy, A., McAlister, S., Higgins, K., McCrystal, P., & Thornton, M. (2005). Response consistency in young adolescents’ drug use self-reports: a recanting rate analysis. Addiction, 100, 189–196.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pew Research Center (2013). Majority now supports legalizing marijuana. Available at http://www.people-press.org/files/legacy-pdf/4-4-13%20Marijuana%20Release.pdf.

  • Radcliffe, P., & Stevens, A. (2008). Are drug treatment services only for ‘thieving junkie scumbags’? Drug users and the management of stigmatised identities. Social Science & Medicine, 67, 1065–1073.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramtekkar, U. P., Striley, C. W., & Cottler, L. B. (2011). Contextual profiles of young adult ecstasy users: A multisite study. Addictive Behaviors, 36, 190–196.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stephens, P. C., Sloboda, Z., Stephens, R. C., Teasdale, B., Grey, S. F., Hawthorne, R. D., et al. (2009). Universal school-based substance abuse prevention programs: Modeling targeted mediators and outcomes for adolescent cigarette, alcohol and marijuana use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 102, 19–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, J. M., Jr., Vaughn, M. G., Bachman, J. G., O’Malley, P. M., Johnston, L. D., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2009). Race/ethnicity, socioeconomic factors, and smoking among early adolescent girls in the United States. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 104, S42–S49.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, L., & Parker, H. (2001). Alcohol, cannabis, ecstasy and cocaine: Drugs of reasoned choice amongst young adult recreational drug users in England. International Journal of Drug Policy, 12, 397–413.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wray-Lake, L., Maggs, J. L., Johnston, L. D., Bachman, J. G., O’Malley, P. M., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2012). Associations between community attachments and adolescent substance use in nationally representative samples. Journal of Adolescent Health, 51, 325–331.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Joseph J. Palamar.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Palamar, J.J. Predictors of Disapproval toward “Hard Drug” Use among High School Seniors in the US. Prev Sci 15, 725–735 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-013-0436-0

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-013-0436-0

Keywords

Navigation