Abstract
Slope failures are recurrent phenomena during the Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) season in the mountainous regions of Arunachal Himalaya, NE India, with a consequent damaging impact on the landscape, life, and property of the people. Geodynamic conditions, fragile lithology, high magnitude seismicity together with high-intensity rainfall from ISM provide the potent mixture of conducive factors contributing towards a very high frequency of landslides in the region. The problem is further accentuated by anthropogenic activities that have increased in recent times. Here we present a case study of a vulnerable road segment between Doimukh and Haj along the National Highway (NH-229) in Papum Pare district of Arunachal Pradesh that witnesses recurring debris slides during the rainy season. We suggest that a minimum threshold value of 433 mm of rainfall can be a triggering factor for the landslides in this Himalayan terrane. Considering similar climatic and geologic factors, this threshold value may be extrapolated for other areas in the Arunachal Sub-Himalayan region. An attempt is also made to analyze the stability of slope (dry/saturated condition) through 2D numerical modeling. The results of the finite element method (FEM) are validated with the limit equilibrium method (LEM). Both critical strength reduction factor (SRF) and factor of safety (FoS) are significantly reduced due to saturation of the debris material. Pre-event simulation for dry and saturated conditions gives the critical SRF values of 1.12 and 0.72 in FEM and FoS of 1.009 and 0.786 in LEM, respectively. A conservative estimate shows at least ~ 15,352 m3 of sediments were generated from a single debris slide event. Predictably, a combined sediment volume from all the events contributes significant sediment load into the adjacent south-flowing Dikrong river. Heavy sediment flux leads to a cascading downstream impact with devastating floods, erosion, and aggradation besides frequent channel changes. This study is expected to contribute towards a better understanding of the disaster potential, cause and effect relationship in a highly landslide-prone terrane of the eastern Himalayas besides enhancing our understanding of upper catchment sediment generation and their trajectory in the Himalayan rivers. This also calls for the further analysis of space–time variability of the ISM to enable developing a landslide early warning system in Arunachal Himalaya.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
source: River network data derived from HydroSHEDS data at 15 arc-second resolution was collected from “https://www.hydrosheds.org/”, popularly known as “HydroRIVERS data” (Lehner and Grill 2013)
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets used for the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Anderson SA, Sitar N (1995) Analysis of rainfall-induced debris flows. J Geotech Eng 121:544–552. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1995)121:7(544)
Ansari MK, Ahmed M, Rajesh Singh TN, Ghalayani I (2015) Rainfall, a major cause for rockfall hazard along the roadways, highways and railways on hilly terrains in India. In: Engineering geology for society and territory—volume 1: climate change and engineering geology. pp 457–460
Bera A, Mukhopadhyay BP, Das D (2019) Landslide hazard zonation mapping using multi-criteria analysis with the help of GIS techniques: a case study from Eastern Himalayas, Namchi, South Sikkim. Nat Hazards 96:935–959. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-019-03580-w
Bishop AW (1955) The use of the slip circle in the stability analysis of slopes. Geotechnique 5:7–17. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1955.5.1.7
Blong RJ, Dunkerley DL (1976) Landslides in the Razorback Area, New South Wales, Australia. Geogr Ann Ser A, Phys Geogr 58:139–147. https://doi.org/10.1080/04353676.1976.11879932
Caine N (1980) The rainfall intensity: duration control of shallow landslides and debris flows. Geogr Ann Ser A, Phys Geogr 62:23–27. https://doi.org/10.2307/520449
Cancelli A, Nova R (1985) Landslides in soil debris cover triggered by rainstorms in Valtellina (Central Alps - Italy). In: Proceedings of 4th international conference and field workshop on landslides. Tokyo: The Japan Geological Society. pp 267–272
Cannon SH, Gartner JE (2005) Wildfire-related debris flow from a hazards perspective. Debris-flow hazards and related phenomena. Springer, Berlin, pp 363–385
Carroll WF (1998) A primer for finite elements in elastic structures. John Wiley & Sons Inc
Cha D, Hwang J, Choi B (2018) Landslides detection and volume estimation in Jinbu area of Korea. For Sci Technol 14:61–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/21580103.2018.1446367
Clarizia M, Gullà G, Sorbino G (1996) Sui meccanismi di innesco dei soil slip. In: La prevenzione delle catastrofi idrogeologiche: il contributo della ricerca scientifica. pp 585–597
Clubb FJ, Mudd SM, Attal M et al (2016) The relationship between drainage density, erosion rate, and hilltop curvature: Implications for sediment transport processes. J Geophys Res Earth Surf 121:1724–1745. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JF003747
Corominas J, Moya J (1999) Reconstructing recent landslide activity in relation to rainfall in the Llobregat River basin, Eastern Pyrenees, Spain. Geomorphology 30:79–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(99)00046-X
Crosta GB, Frattini P (2001) Rainfall thresholds for soil slip and debris flow triggering. In: Proceedings of the 2nd EGS Plinius conference on Mediterranean storms. pp 463–487
Crosta GB, Frattini P (2008) Rainfall-induced landslides and debris flows. Hydrol Process 22:473–477. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6885
Cuomo S (2020) Modelling of flowslides and debris avalanches in natural and engineered slopes: a review. Geoenviron Disasters 7:1–25. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40677-019-0133-9
Das R, Singh TN (2021a) Effect of closely spaced, non-persistent ubiquitous joint on tunnel boundary deformation: a case study from Himachal Himalaya. Geotech Geol Eng 39:2447–2459. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-020-01637-3
Das R, Singh TN (2021b) Effect of rock bolt support mechanism on tunnel deformation in jointed rockmass: a numerical approach. Undergr Sp 6:409–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.undsp.2020.06.001
Dawson EM, Roth WH, Drescher A (1999) Slope stability analysis by strength reduction. Géotechnique 49:835–840. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1999.49.6.835
Dhar ON, Nandargi S (2004) Rainfall distribution over the Arunachal Pradesh Himalayas. Weather 59:155–157. https://doi.org/10.1256/wea.87.03
Fang H, Cui P, Pei LZ, Zhou XJ (2012) Model testing on rainfall-induced landslide of loose soil in Wenchuan earthquake region. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 12:527–533. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-12-527-2012
Fathani TF, Legono D, Karnawati D (2017) A numerical model for the analysis of rapid landslide motion. Geotech Geol Eng 35:2253–2268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-017-0241-9
Gan F, He B, Wang T (2018) Water and soil loss from landslide deposits as a function of gravel content in the Wenchuan earthquake area, China, revealed by artificial rainfall simulations. PLoS ONE 13:1–19. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196657
Gogoi PP, Vinoj V, Phukon P (2020) Role of meteorology and local orography on a flood event in the Lower Subansiri Basin and post-flood changes to land use and land cover. Curr Sci 118:778–785. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v118/i5/778-785
Griffiths DV, Lane PA (1999) Slope stability analysis by finite elements. Géotechnique 49:387–403. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1999.49.3.387
Guo X, Peng C, Wu W, Wang Y (2016) A hypoplastic constitutive model for debris materials. Acta Geotech 11:1217–1229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-016-0494-0
Guzzetti F, Peruccacci S, Rossi M, Stark CP (2008) The rainfall intensity-duration control of shallow landslides and debris flows: an update. Landslides 5:3–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-007-0112-1
Hakro MR, Harahap ISH (2015) Laboratory experiments on rainfall-induced flowslide from pore pressure and moisture content measurements. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci Discuss 3:1575–1613. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhessd-3-1575-2015
Hammah RE, Curran JH, Yacoub T, Corkum B (2004) Stability analysis of rock slopes using the finite element method. In: Proceedings of the ISRM regional symposium EUROCK 2004 & 53rd geome- chanics colloquium. Salzburg, Austria, pp 1–6
Heim A (1932) Bergsturz und Menschenleben. Fretz & Wasmuth, Zurich
Hu X, Bürgmann R (2020) Rheology of a debris slide from the joint analysis of UAVSAR and LiDAR data. Geophys Res Lett. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL087452
Huang YH (2014) Slope stability analysis by the limit equilibrium method. American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA
Rocscience Inc. (2012) Slide v6.0, 2D program for limit-equilibrium slope stability analysis. www.rocscience.com
Rocscience Inc. (2016) Phase2 v.8, 2D finite element software. www.rocscience.com
Innes JL (1983) Debris flows. Prog Phys Geogr 7:469–501. https://doi.org/10.1177/030913338300700401
Iverson RM, Reid ME, LaHusen RG (1997) Debris-flow mobilization from landslides. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 25:85–138. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.25.1.85
Jeong S, Lee K, Kim J, Kim Y (2017) Analysis of rainfall-induced landslide on unsaturated soil slopes. Sustain 9:1–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9071280
Kainthola A, Verma D, Singh TN (2013) Probabilistic and sensitivity investigation for the hill slopes in Uttarakhand, lesser Himalaya, India. Am J Numer Anal 1:8–14. https://doi.org/10.12691/ajna-1-1-2
Kainthola A, Singh PK, Singh TN (2014) Stability investigation of road cut slope in basaltic rockmass, Mahabaleshwar, India. Geosci Front. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2014.03.002
Kanungo DP, Pain A, Sharma S (2013) Finite element modeling approach to assess the stability of debris and rock slopes: a case study from the Indian Himalayas. Nat Hazards 69:1–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-013-0680-4
Karunakaran C, Rangarao A (1976) Status of exploration for hydrocarbons in the Himalayan region contributions to stratigraphy and structure Himalayan geology seminar, Section III
Katzenberger A, Schewe J, Pongratz J, Levermann A (2021) Robust increase of Indian monsoon rainfall and its variability under future warming in CMIP6 models. Earth Syst Dyn 12:367–386. https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-12-367-2021
Korup O (2005) Large landslides and their effect on sediment flux in South Westland, New Zealand. Earth Surf Process Landforms 30:305–323. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1143
Korup O, Montgomery DR, Hewitt K (2010) Glacier and landslide feedbacks to topographic relief in the Himalayan syntaxes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107:5317–5322. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0907531107
Kumar G (1997) Geology of Arunachal Pradesh. Geological Society of India
Lee DH, Yang YE, Lin HM (2007) Assessing slope protection methods for weak rock slopes in Southwestern Taiwan. Eng Geol 91:100–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2006.12.005
Lehner B, Grill G (2013) Global river hydrography and network routing: baseline data and new approaches to study the world’s large river systems. Hydrol Process 27:2171–2186. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9740
Lu N, Likos WJ (2006) Suction stress characteristic curve for unsaturated soil. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 132:131–142. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)1090-0241(2006)132:2(131)
Martin Y, Rood K, Schwab JW, Church M (2002) Sediment transfer by shallow landsliding in the Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia. Can J Earth Sci 39:189–205. https://doi.org/10.1139/e01-068
Matsui T, San K-C (1992) finite element slope stability analysis by shear strength reduction technique. Soils Found 32:59–70. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.32.59
Moser M, Hohensinn F (1983) Geotechnical aspects of soil slips in Alpine regions. Eng Geol 19:185–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(83)90003-0
Paul S, Bartarya S, Rautela P, Mahajan A (2000) Catastrophic mass movement of 1998 monsoons at Malpa in Kali Valley, Kumaun Himalaya (India). Geomorphology 35:169–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(00)00032-5
Poddar MC (1950) The Assam earthquake of 15th August 1950. Indian Miner V4:167–176
Pradhan SP, Panda SD, Roul AR, Thakur M (2019) Insights into the recent Kotropi landslide of August 2017, India: a geological investigation and slope stability analysis. Landslides. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01186-8
Rangarao A (1983) Geology and hydrocarbon potential of a part of Assam-Arakan basin and its adjacent region. In: Bhandari LL, Venkatachala BS, Kumar R, Nanjunda SS, Garga P, Srivastava DC (ed) Petroliferous basins of India
Sanzeni A, Peli M, Barontini S, Colleselli F (2019) Modelling of an accidentally triggered shallow landslide in Northern Italy. Landslides 16:2277–2286. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01251-2
Sarkar S, Roy AK, Raha P (2016) Deterministic approach for susceptibility assessment of shallow debris slide in the Darjeeling Himalayas, India. CATENA 142:36–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.02.009
Scheidegger AE (1973) On the prediction of the reach and velocity of catastrophic landslides. Rock Mech Felsmechanik Mécanique Des Roches 5:231–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01301796
Sengupta A, Gupta S, Anbarasu K (2010) Rainfall thresholds for the initiation of landslide at Lanta Khola in north Sikkim, India. Nat Hazards 52:31–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-009-9352-9
Sharma LK, Sirdesai NN, Sharma KM, Singh TN (2018) Experimental study to examine the independent roles of lime and cement on the stabilization of a mountain soil: a comparative study. Appl Clay Sci 152:183–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2017.11.012
Singh R, Umrao RK, Singh TN (2014) Stability evaluation of road-cut slopes in the Lesser Himalaya of Uttarakhand, India: conventional and numerical approaches. Bull Eng Geol Environ 73:845–857. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-013-0532-1
Singh PK, Das R, Singh KK, Singh TN (2016) Landslide in fractured and stratified rocks—a case from Aizawl, Mizoram, India. In: Proceedings of the conference on Recent Advances in Rock Engineering (RARE 2016). Atlantis Press, Paris, France, pp 375–380
Stead D (2016) The influence of shales on slope instability. Rock Mech Rock Eng 49:635–651. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-015-0865-0
Tang C, Zhu J, Ding J et al (2011) Catastrophic debris flows triggered by a 14 August 2010 rainfall at the epicenter of the Wenchuan earthquake. Landslides 8:485–497. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-011-0269-5
Teja TS, Dikshit A, Satyam N (2019) Determination of rainfall thresholds for landslide prediction using an algorithm-based approach: case study in the Darjeeling Himalayas, India. Geosci. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9070302
Turner AK, Schuster RL (1996) Landslides: investigation and mitigation. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, Washington, DC
Varnes D (1978) Slope movement types and processes. In: Schuster RL, Krizek RJ (eds) Landslides, Analysis and Control, Transportation Research Board,. Spec Rep 176:11–33
Wang G, Sassa K (2003) Pore-pressure generation and movement of rainfall-induced landslides: effects of grain size and fine-particle content. Eng Geol 69:109–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(02)00268-5
Wen BP, Aydin A (2005) Mechanism of a rainfall-induced slide-debris flow: constraints from microstructure of its slip zone. Eng Geol 78:69–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2004.10.007
Zhang L (2005) Engineering properties of rocks, Volume 4 (Geo-Engineering Book Series)
Acknowledgements
Part of this research was carried from financial assistance offered to the first author (Ratan Das) by the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur through the Institute Postdoctoral Fellowship Program. We highly appreciate the anonymous reviewers and editor for their constructive comments and valuable suggestions that helped to improve the overall quality of the manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Das, R., Phukon, P. & Singh, T.N. Understanding the cause and effect relationship of debris slides in Papum Pare district, Arunachal Himalaya, India. Nat Hazards 110, 1735–1760 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-021-05010-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-021-05010-2