Abstract
The aim of the study was to determine the effect of attending a faith-based education program (FBEP) on self-assessed physical, mental and spiritual health parameters. The study was designed as a prospective, observational, cohort study of individuals attending a 5-day FBEP. Out of 2650 sequential online registrants, those previously unexposed to the FBEP received automated invitations to complete 5 sequential Self-Assessment Questionnaire’s (SAQ’s) containing: (1) Duke University Religion Index (DUREL); (2) Negative Religious Coping (N-RCOPE); (3) Perceived Stress Scale (PSS); (4) Center for Epidemiology and Statistics-Depression Scale (CES-D); (5) Brief Illness Perception Questionnaire (BIPQ); and the (6) State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). Pre-attendance SAQ (S1) was repeated immediately post-FBEP (S2), at 30 days (S3), 90 days (S4) and after 1 year (S5). Of 655 invited, 274 (42 %) succeeded, 242 (37 %) failed and 139 (21 %) declined to complete S1. Of the 274, 37 (14 %) were excluded at on-site interview; 26 (9 %) never attended the FBEP (i.e., controls: 5♂; 21♀; 27–76 years); and 211 (77 %) participated (i.e., cases: 105♂; 106♀; 18–84 years) and were analyzed over time: 211 (S1); 192 (S2); 99 (S3); 52 (S4); 51 (S5). IRB approval was via the Human Research Ethics Committee of Stellenbosch University. DUREL showed significant, sustained changes in Intrinsic Religiosity. N-RCOPE showed significant, lasting improvement. In others, median values dropped significantly immediately after the FBEP (S1:S2) for STAI-State p < 0.0001; PSS p < 0.0001; BIPQ p < 0.0001; and CES-D p < 0.0001; and at 1 month (S1:S3) for STAI-Trait p < 0.001; all changes were sustained (S3 through S5). This FBEP produced statistically and clinically significant changes; these lasted in those followed up >1 year.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bergua, V., Meillon, C., Potvin, O., Bouisson, J., Le Goff, M., Rouaud, O., & Amieva, H. (2012). The STAI-Y trait scale: Psychometric properties and normative data from a large population-based study of elderly people. International Psychogeriatrics, 24(7), 1163–1171. doi:10.1017/S1041610212000300.
Borras, L., Mohr, S., Brandt, P. Y., Gillieron, C., Eytan, A., & Huguelet, P. (2007). Religious beliefs in schizophrenia: Their relevance for adherence to treatment. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 33(5), 1238–1246. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbl070.
Broadbent, E., Kydd, R., Sanders, D., & Vanderpyl, J. (2008). Unmet needs and treatment seeking in high users of mental health services: Role of illness perceptions. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 42(2), 147–153. doi:10.1080/00048670701787503.
Broadbent, E., Petrie, K. J., Main, J., & Weinman, J. (2006). The brief illness perception questionnaire. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 60(6), 631–637. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2005.10.020.
Burns, V. E., Drayson, M., Ring, C., & Carroll, D. (2002). Perceived stress and psychological well-being are associated with antibody status after meningitis C conjugate vaccination. Psychosomatic Medicine, 64(6), 963–970. Retrieved from http://www.hubmed.org/display.cgi?uids=12461201
Carpenter, L. L., Tyrka, A. R., McDougle, C. J., Malison, R. T., Owens, M. J., Nemeroff, C. B., & Price, L. H. (2004). Cerebrospinal fluid corticotropin-releasing factor and perceived early-life stress in depressed patients and healthy control subjects. Neuropsychopharmacology, 29(4), 777–784. Retrieved from http://www.hubmed.org/display.cgi?uids=14702025, http://www.nature.com/npp/journal/v29/n4/pdf/1300375a.pdf
Choi, S. W., Schalet, B., Cook, K. F., & Cella, D. (2014). Establishing a common metric for depressive symptoms: Linking the BDI-II, CES-D, and PHQ-9 to PROMIS depression. Psychological Assessment, 26(2), 513–527. doi:10.1037/a0035768.
Cohen, S. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 385.
Cohen, S., & Janicki-Deverts, D. (2012). Who’s stressed? Distributions of psychological stress in the United States in probability samples from 1983, 2006 and 2009. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 42(6), 1320–1334.
Cohen, S., Kessler, R. C., & Underwood, L. G. (1995). Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists. New York: Oxford University Press.
Cohen, S., Tyrrell, D. A., Russell, M. A., Jarvis, M. J., & Smith, A. P. (1993). Smoking, alcohol consumption, and susceptibility to the common cold. The American Journal of Public Health, 83(9), 1277–1283. Retrieved from http://www.hubmed.org/display.cgi?uids=8363004, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1694990/pdf/amjph00533-0087.pdf
Crawford, J., Cayley, C., Lovibond, P., Wilson, P., & Hartley, C. (2011). Percentile norms and accompanying interval estimates from an Australian general adult population sample for self-report mood scales. Australian Psychologist, 46, 3–14.
Cruess, D. G., Antoni, M. H., Kumar, M., Ironson, G., McCabe, P., Fernandez, J. B., … Schneiderman, N. (1999). Cognitive-behavioral stress management buffers decreases in dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) and increases in the cortisol/DHEA-S ratio and reduces mood disturbance and perceived stress among HIV-seropositive men. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 24(5), 537–549. Retrieved from http://www.hubmed.org/display.cgi?uids=10378240, http://www.psyneuen-journal.com/article/S0306-4530(99)00010-4/abstract
Culhane, J. F., Rauh, V., McCollum, K. F., Hogan, V. K., Agnew, K., & Wadhwa, P. D. (2001). Maternal stress is associated with bacterial vaginosis in human pregnancy. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 5(2), 127–134. Retrieved from http://www.hubmed.org/display.cgi?uids=11573838
Diego, M. A., Field, T., & Hernandez-Reif, M. (2001). CES-D depression scores are correlated with frontal EEG alpha asymmetry. Depress Anxiety, 13(1), 32–37. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11233458, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/1520-6394(2001)13:1<32::AID-DA5>3.0.CO;2-G/abstract
Ebrecht, M., Hextall, J., Kirtley, L.-G., Taylor, A., Dyson, M., & Weinman, J. (2004). Perceived stress and cortisol levels predict speed of wound healing in healthy male adults. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29(6), 798–809. Retrieved from http://www.hubmed.org/display.cgi?uids=15110929, http://www.psyneuen-journal.com/article/S0306-4530(03)00144-6/abstract
Epel, E. S., Blackburn, E. H., Lin, J., Dhabhar, F. S., Adler, N. E., Morrow, J. D., & Cawthon, R. M. (2004). Accelerated telomere shortening in response to life stress. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences USA, 101(49), 17312–17315. Retrieved from http://www.hubmed.org/display.cgi?uids=15574496, http://www.pnas.org/content/101/49/17312.full.pdf
Fewtrell, M. S., Kennedy, K., Singhal, A., Martin, R. M., Ness, A., Hadders-Algra, M., … Lucas, A. (2008). How much loss to follow-up is acceptable in long-term randomised trials and prospective studies? Archives Disease in Childhood, 93(6), 458–461. doi:10.1136/adc.2007.127316
Grossoehme, D. H., VanDyke, R., & Seid, M. (2008). Spirituality’s role in chronic disease self-management: Sanctification of the body in families dealing with cystic fibrosis. J Health Care Chaplain, 15(2), 149–158. doi:10.1080/08854720903163312.
Holzel, B. K., Carmody, J., Evans, K. C., Hoge, E. A., Dusek, J. A., Morgan, L., … Lazar, S. W. (2010). Stress reduction correlates with structural changes in the amygdala. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 5(1), 11–17. Retrieved from http://www.hubmed.org/display.cgi?uids=19776221, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2840837/pdf/nsp034.pdf
Kemppainen, J., Kim-Godwin, Y. S., Reynolds, N. R., & Spencer, V. S. (2008). Beliefs about HIV disease and medication adherence in persons living with HIV/AIDS in rural southeastern North Carolina. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 19(2), 127–136. doi:10.1016/j.jana.2007.08.006.
Koenig, H. G. (2007). Physician’s role in addressing spiritual needs. The Southern Medical Journal, 100(9), 932–933. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=17902307
Koenig, H. G., & Büssing, A. (2010). The Duke University Religion Index (DUREL): A five-item measure for use in epidemological studies. Religions, 1(1), 78–85. Retrieved from http://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/1/1/78
Kramer, J. R., Ledolter, J., Manos, G. N., & Bayless, M. L. (2000). Stress and metabolic control in diabetes mellitus: methodological issues and an illustrative analysis. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 22(1), 17–28. Retrieved from http://www.hubmed.org/display.cgi?uids=10892525
Kremer, H., Ironson, G., & Porr, M. (2009). Spiritual and mind-body beliefs as barriers and motivators to HIV-treatment decision-making and medication adherence? A qualitative study. AIDS Patient Care STDS, 23(2), 127–134. doi:10.1089/apc.2008.0131.
Kvaal, K., Ulstein, I., Nordhus, I. H., & Engedal, K. (2005). The Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI): the state scale in detecting mental disorders in geriatric patients. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20(7), 629–634. doi:10.1002/gps.1330.
Leon, K. A., Hyre, A. D., Ompad, D., Desalvo, K. B., & Muntner, P. (2007). Perceived stress among a workforce 6 months following hurricane Katrina. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 42(12), 1005–1011. Retrieved from http://www.hubmed.org/display.cgi?uids=17932611, http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00127-007-0260-6
Leventhal, E. A. (1984). Aging and the perception of illness. Research Aging, 6(1), 119–135. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6544973
Lyon, M. E., Garvie, P. A., Kao, E., Briggs, L., He, J., Malow, R., … McCarter, R. (2011). Spirituality in HIV-infected adolescents and their families: FAmily CEntered (FACE) advance care planning and medication adherence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48(6), 633–636. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.09.006
Malarkey, W. B., Pearl, D. K., Demers, L. M., Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., & Glaser, R. (1995). Influence of academic stress and season on 24-h mean concentrations of ACTH, cortisol, and beta-endorphin. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 20(5), 499–508. Retrieved from http://www.hubmed.org/display.cgi?uids=7675934, http://www.psyneuen-journal.com/article/0306-4530(94)00077-N/abstract
McAlonan, G. M., Lee, A. M., Cheung, V., Cheung, C., Tsang, K. W. T., Sham, P. C., … Wong, J. G. W. S. (2007). Immediate and sustained psychological impact of an emerging infectious disease outbreak on health care workers. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 52(4), 241–247. Retrieved from http://www.hubmed.org/display.cgi?uids=17500305
Mellins, C. A., Havens, J. F., McDonnell, C., Lichtenstein, C., Uldall, K., Chesney, M., & Bell, J. (2009). Adherence to antiretroviral medications and medical care in HIV-infected adults diagnosed with mental and substance abuse disorders. AIDS Care, 21(2), 168–177. doi:10.1080/09540120802001705.
Newport, F. (2012). In US, 77 % Identify as Christian. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/159548/identify-christian.aspx from Gallup, Inc. http://www.gallup.com/poll/159548/identify-christian.aspx
Oei, T. P., Evans, L., & Crook, G. M. (1990). Utility and validity of the STAI with anxiety disorder patients. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 29(Pt 4), 429–432. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2289078
Pargament, K., Feuille, M., & Burdzy, D. (2011). The brief RCOPE: Current psychometric status of a short measure of religious coping. Religions, 2(1), 51–76. Retrieved from http://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/2/1/51
Pargament, K. I., Koenig, H. G., & Perez, L. M. (2000). The many methods of religious coping: Development and initial validation of the RCOPE. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56(4), 519–543. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(200004)56:4<519:AID-JCLP6>3.0.CO;2-1.
Parsons, S. K., Cruise, P. L., Davenport, W. M., & Jones, V. (2006). Religious beliefs, practices and treatment adherence among individuals with HIV in the southern United States. AIDS Patient Care STDS, 20(2), 97–111. doi:10.1089/apc.2006.20.97.
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.
Schein, R. L., & Koenig, H. G. (1997). The Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression (CES-D) Scale: Assessment of depression in the medically ill elderly. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 12(4), 436–446. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9178047, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1166(199704)12:4<436::AID-GPS499>3.0.CO;2-M/abstract
Smith, K. V., & Goldman, N. (2011). Measuring health status: Self-, interviewer, and physician reports of overall health. Journal of Aging and Health, 23(2), 242–266. doi:10.1177/0898264310383421.
Spielberger, C. D. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Stanley, M. A., Bush, A. L., Camp, M. E., Jameson, J. P., Phillips, L. L., Barber, C. R., & Cully, J. A. (2011). Older adults’ preferences for religion/spirituality in treatment for anxiety and depression. Aging and Mental Health, 15(3), 334–343. doi:10.1080/13607863.2010.519326.
Stansbury, J. P., Ried, L. D., & Velozo, C. A. (2006). Unidimensionality and bandwidth in the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 86(1), 10–22. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa8601_03.
Stewart, D. E., & Yuen, T. (2011). A systematic review of resilience in the physically ill. Psychosomatics, 52(3), 199–209. doi:10.1016/j.psym.2011.01.036.
Stone, A. A., Mezzacappa, E. S., Donatone, B. A., & Gonder, M. (1999). Psychosocial stress and social support are associated with prostate-specific antigen levels in men: Results from a community screening program. Health Psychology, 18(5), 482–486. Retrieved from http://www.hubmed.org/display.cgi?uids=10519464, http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/hea/18/5/482/
Storch, E. A., Strawser, M. S., & Storch, J. B. (2004). Two-week test-retest reliability of the Duke Religion Index. Psychological Reports, 94(3 Pt 1), 993–994. Retrieved from http://www.hubmed.org/display.cgi?uids=15217062
Tenenbaum, G., Furst, D., & Weingarten, G. (1985). A statistical reevaluation of the STAI anxiety questionnaire. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 41(2), 239–244. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3980747
Source of funding
None. However, two co-authors are employees of Be in Health Inc. Thomaston, GA, USA.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Cronjé, F.J., Sommers, L.S., Faulkner, J.K. et al. Effect of a Faith-Based Education Program on Self-Assessed Physical, Mental and Spiritual (Religious) Health Parameters. J Relig Health 56, 89–108 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-015-0129-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-015-0129-z