Skip to main content
Log in

The Importance of Morphological Knowledge in the Reading Comprehension Difficulties in a Highly Agglutinative Language: Evidence from Poor Comprehenders

  • Published:
Journal of Psycholinguistic Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examined the importance of morphological knowledge in the reading comprehension difficulties of poor comprehenders reading in a highly agglutinative language, Turkish. Participants were 56 students recruited from the second and third grades. In the assessment process, we applied three experimental paradigms addressing the participants' morphological and morpho-syntactical knowledge at the lexical and the supralexical levels. Data were collected in individual sessions and analyzed by running a series of GLM ANOVAs and calculating the Spearman–Brown correlation coefficient. Findings suggest morphological knowledge is an important indicator of reading comprehension difficulties in Turkish, a highly agglutinative language. The acquisition of adequate reading comprehension seems to be modified by particularities of the morphological knowledge.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study a part of a national reading project supported by the Turkish Academy of Science (Project number: 117K976). Due to the Project Agreement Essentials they are not publicly available but they can be available on request from the authors.

References

  • Acarlar, F., & Johnston, J. R. (2011). Acquisition of Turkish grammatical morphology by children with developmental disorders. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 46(6), 728–738. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-6984.2011.00035.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adlof, S. M., Catts, H. W., & Little, T. D. (2006). Should the simple view of reading include a fluency component? Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 19, 933–958.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmadi, M. R., & Pourhosein Gilakjani, A. (2012). Reciprocal teaching strategies and their impacts on English reading comprehension. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(10), 2053–2060. https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.2.10.2053-2060

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Akbulut, F. D. (2019). The contribution of morphological instruction to morphological awareness and reading: An integrative experiment on Turkish EFL learners. International Journal of Social Sciences and Education Research, 5(3), 263–278. https://doi.org/10.24289/ijsser.558986

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aksan, D. (2005). Türkçenin Zenginlikleri, İncelikleri [Riches and Subtleties of Turkish]. Bilgi Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, S., & Bond, R. (2009). Lexical expertise and reading skill: Bottom-up and top-down processing of lexical ambiguity. Reading & Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 22, 687. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-008-9137-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Apel, K., Henbest, V. S., & Petscher, Y. (2022). Morphological awareness performance profiles of first- through sixth-grade students. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 65(3), 1070–1086. https://doi.org/10.1044/2021_JSLHR-21-00282

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aydin, F., & Yildirim, O. (2017). A study on the morphological awareness of intermediate level adult Turkish EFL learners. Journal of English Language and Education, 3(2), 65–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Babayigit, S., & Stainthorp, R. (2010). Component processes of early reading, spelling, and narrative writing skills in Turkish: A longitudinal study. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 23(5), 539–568. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-009-9173-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biancarosa, G., Aferbach, P., & Pearson, P. D. (2020). Teaching reading for understanding: Curriculum and instruction work of the five core reading for understanding teams. In P. D. Pearson, A. S. Palincsar, G. Biancarosa, & A. I. Berman (Eds.), Reaping the rewards of the reading for understanding initiative (pp. 215–250). National Academy of Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, D. V. M., & Snowling, M. J. (2004). Developmental dyslexia and specific language impairment: Same or different? Psychological Bulletin, 130(6), 858–886. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.6.858

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowers, P. N., Kirby, J. R., & Deacon, S. H. (2010). The effects of morphological instruction on literacy skills: A systematic review of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 80, 144–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brimo, D., Apel, K., & Fountain, T. (2017). Examining the contributions of syntactic awareness and syntactic knowledge to reading comprehension. Journal of Research in Reading, 40(1), 57–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12050

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brimo, D., Lund, E., & Sapp, A. (2018). Effects of type and construct when measuring children’s syntax: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 53(3), 431–445. https://doi.org/10.1111/1460-6984.12362

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cain, K., & Oakhill, J. (2006). Profiles of children with specific reading comprehension difficulties. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(4), 683–696. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709905X67610

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cain, K. (2007). Syntactic awareness and reading ability: Is there any evidence for a special relationship? Applied Psycholinguistics, 28(4), 679–694.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Capin, P., Stevens, E.A., Stewart, A.A., Swanson, E. & Vaughn, S. (2020). Examining vocabulary, reading comprehension, and content knowledge instruction during fourth grade social studies teaching. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-020-10106-5.

  • Carlisle, J. F. (2003). Morphology matters in learning to read: A commentary. Reading Psychology, 24, 291–332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlisle, J. F. (2007). Fostering morphological processing, vocabulary development, and reading comprehension. In R. K. Wagner, A. E. Muse, & K. R. Tannenbaum (Eds.), Vocabulary acquisition: Implications for reading comprehension (pp. 78–103). Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlisle, J. F. (2010). Effects of instruction in morphological awareness on literacy achievement: An integrative review. Reading Research Quarterly, 45(4), 464–487. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.45.4.5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlisle, J.F. & Kearns, D.M. (2017). Learning to read morphologically complex words. In K. Cain, D.L. Compton & R.K. Parrila (Eds.), Theories of reading comprehension, (pp. 192–214). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: John Benjamins.

  • Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19, 5–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100618772271

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Catts, H. W., Adlof, S. M., & Weismer, S. E. (2006). Language deficits in poor comprehenders: A case for the simple view of reading. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 49, 278–293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chik, P.P.-M., Ho, C.S.-H., Yeung, P.-S., Chan, D.W.-O., Chung, K.K.-H., Luan, H., et al. (2012). Syntactic skills in sentence reading comprehension among Chinese elementary school children. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 25, 679–699. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-010-9293-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cromley, J. G., & Azevedo, R. (2007). Testing and refining the direct and inferential mediation model of reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(2), 311–325. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.2.311

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cutting, L. E., & Scarborough, H. S. (2006). Prediction of reading comprehension: Relative contributions of word recognition, language proficiency, and other cognitive skills can depend on how comprehension is measured. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10(3), 277–299. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr1003_5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deacon, S. H., & Kirby, J. R. (2004). Morphological awareness: Just “more phonological”? The roles of morphological and phonological awareness in reading development. Applied Psycholinguistics, 25, 223–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deacon, S. H., Kirby, J.R. & Bell-Casselman, (2009). How robust is the contribution of morphological awareness to general spelling outcomes? Reading Psychology, 30, 301–318.

  • Deacon, S. H., Kieffer, M. J., & Laroche, A. (2014). The relation between morphological awareness and reading comprehension: Evidence from mediation and longitudinal models. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18, 432–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2014.926907

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deacon, S. H., Tong, X., & Francis, K. (2017). The relationship of morphological analysis and morphological decoding to reading comprehension. Journal of Research in Reading, 40, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12056

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deacon, S. H., Whalen, R., & Kirby, J. R. (2011). Do children see the danger in dangerous? Grade 4, 6, and 8 children’s reading of morphologically complex words. Applied Psycholinguistics, 32(3), 467–481. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716411000166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, L. G. (2018). Language and reading: The role of morpheme and phoneme awareness. Current Developmental Disorders Reports, 5, 226–234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40474-018-0153-2

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Durgunoğlu, A. Y. (2003). Recognizing morphologically complex words in Turkish. Reading complex words (pp. 81–92). Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandes, S., Querido, L., Verhaeghe, A., Marques, C., & Araujo, L. (2017). Reading development in European Portuguese: Relationships between oral reading fluency, vocabulary and reading comprehension. Reading & Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 30, 1987–2007. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-017-9763-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foorman, B., Petscher, Y., & Bishop, M. D. (2012). The incremental variance of morphological knowledge to reading comprehension in grades 3–10 beyond prior reading comprehension, spelling, and text reading efficiency. Learning and Individual Differences, 22, 792–798.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frost, R. (2006). Becoming literate in Hebrew: The grain-size hypothesis and Semitic orthographic systems. Developmental Science, 9, 439–440. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2006.00523.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frost, R., Katz, L., & Bentin, S. (1987). Strategies for visual word recognition and orthographic depth: A multilingual comparison. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 13, 104–115.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goff, D. A., Pratt, C., & Ong, B. (2005). The relations between children’s reading comprehension, working memory, language skills and components of reading decoding in a normal sample. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 18(7–9), 583–616. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-004-7109-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gough, P., & Tunmer, W. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7, 6–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guldenoglu, B., Kargin, T., & Miller, P. (2015). Okuma güçlüğü olan ve olmayan öğrencilerin cümle anlama becerilerinin incelenmesi [Examining the sentence comprehension skills of students with and without reading difficulties]. Turkish Journal of Pyschology, 30(76), 82–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guldenoglu, B. (2016). The effects of syllable-awareness skills on the word-reading performances of students reading in a transparent orthography. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 8(3), 425–442.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirsch, E. D., Jr. (2010). Teaching content is teaching reading. Principal, 90(2), 10–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Høien T., Lundberg I. (2000) Dyslexia and Phonology. In: Dyslexia: From theory to intervention. neuropsychology and cognition, vol 18. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-1329-0_4

  • Kamhi, A. G., & Catts, H. W. (2012). Reading development. In A. G. Kamhi, & H. W. Catts (Eds.), Language and reading disabilities (3rd ed., pp. 24–44).

  • Kargin, T., Guldenoglu, B., & Sümer, H. M. (2019). Morfolojik farkındalık becerilerinin okuma sürecindeki rolünün gelişimsel bakış açısıyla incelenmesi: İşiten ve işitme engelli okuyuculardan bulgular [Examining the Role of Morphological Awareness Skills on the Reading Process from a Developmental Perspective: Evidence from Deaf and Hearing Readers]. Ankara University Journal of Special Education, 20(2), 339–367. https://doi.org/10.21565/ozelegitimdergisi.456557

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kieffer, M. J., & Lesaux, N. K. (2008). The role of derivational morphology in the reading comprehension of Spanish-Speaking English language learners. Reading and Writing, 21, 783–804. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-007-9092-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kieffer, M. J., & Lesaux, N. K. (2012). Direct and indirect roles of morphological awareness in the English reading comprehension of native English, Spanish, Filipino, and Vietnamese speakers. Language Learning, 62, 4. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00722.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laçin, E., Guldenoğlu, B., & Kargin, T. (2018). Examining the morphological awareness of deaf Turkish readers. Kastamonu Education Journal, 26(3), 653–660.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levesque, K. C., Breadmore, H. L., & Deacon, S. H. (2021). How morphology impacts reading and spelling: Advancing the role of morphology in models of literacy development. Journal of Research in Reading, 44(1), 10–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lonigan, C. J., Burgess, S. R., & Schatschneider, C. (2018). Examining the simple view of reading with elementary school children: Still simple after all these years. Remedial and Special Education, 39(5), 260–273. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932518764833

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • López-Higes, R., Gallego, C., Martín-Aragoneses, M. T., & Melle, N. (2015). Morpho-syntactic reading comprehension in children with early and late cochlear implants. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 20, 136–146.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martín, F., Bertram, R., Haikio, T., Schreuder, R., & Baayen, R. H. (2004). Morphological family size in a morphologically rich language: The case of Finnish compared with Dutch and Hebrew. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30(6), 1271–1278. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.30.6.1271

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, P. (2000). Syntactic and semantic processing in deaf and hearing readers. American Annals of the Deaf, 145, 436–448.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, P. (2010). Phonological, orthographic, and syntactic awareness and their relation to reading comprehension in prelingually deaf individuals: What can we learn from skilled readers? Journal of Development and Physical Disabilities, 22, 549–561.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, P., Kargin, T., & Guldenoglu, B. (2013). The reading comprehension failure of Turkish prelingually deaf readers: Evidence from semantic and syntactic processing. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 25(2), 221–239. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10882012-9299-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, P., Guldenoglu, B., & Kargin, T. (2019). Reading failure in a completely transparent orthography representing a morphologically highly complex agglutinative language: The case of Turkish. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 31, 669–689. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-019-09667-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of National Education (MoNE). (2019). Türkçe Dersi Öğretim Programı [Turkish Language Curriculum]. Ankara: MoNE Press.

  • Muter, V., Hulme, C., Snowling, M. J., & Stevenson, J. (2004). Phonemes, rimes, vocabulary, and grammatical skills as foundations of early reading development: Evidence from a longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 40(5), 665–681.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perfetti, C. A., Landi, N., & Oakhill, J. (2005). The Acquisition of Reading Comprehension Skill. In M. J. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.), Blackwell handbooks of developmental psychology. The science of reading: A handbook (p. 227–247). Blackwell Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470757642.ch13

  • Perfetti, C., & Stafura, J. (2014). Word knowledge in a theory of reading comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(1), 22–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2013.827687

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perfetti, C., Yang, C. L., & Schmalhofer, F. (2008). Comprehension skill and word-to-text integration processes. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 22, 303–318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Protopapas, A., Mouzaki, A., Sideridis, G. D., Kotsolakou, A., & Simos, P. G. (2013). The role of vocabulary in the context of the simple view of reading. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 29(2), 168–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2013.758569

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rastle, K. (2018). The place of morphology in learning to read in English. Cortex. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2018.02.008

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scarborough, H. S. (2005). Developmental relationships between language and reading: Reconciling a beautiful hypothesis with some ugly facts. In H. W. Catts & A. G. Kamhi (Eds.), The connections between language and reading disabilities (pp. 3–24). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seymour, P. H. K., Aro, M., & Erskine, J. M. (2003). Foundation literacy acquisition in European orthographies. British Journal of Psychology, 94, 143–174. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712603321661859

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shimron, J. (2006). Reading Hebrew: The language and the psychology of reading it. Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Siu, C. T., Ho, C. S., Chan, D. W., & Chung, K. K. (2016). Development of word order and morphosyntactic skills in reading comprehension among Chinese elementary school children. Learning and Individual Difference, 47, 61–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snow, C. E. (2018). Simple and not-so-simple views of reading. Remedial and Special Education, 39, 313–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steensel, R., Oostdam, R., Gelderen, A., & Schooten, E. (2016). The role of word decoding, vocabulary knowledge and meta-cognitive knowledge in monolingual and bilingual low achieving adolescents’ reading comprehension. Journal of Research in Reading, 39, 312–329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tong, X., Deacon, S. H., & Cain, K. E. (2013). Morphological and syntactic awareness in poor comprehenders: Another piece of the puzzle. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 47(1), 22–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tong, X., Tong, X., Shu, H., Chan, S., & McBride-Chang, C. (2014). Discourse-level reading comprehension in Chinese children: What is the role of syntactic awareness? Journal of Research in Reading, 37(S1), 48–70. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12016

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Torgesen, J. K., & Hudson, R. (2006). Reading fluency: critical issues for struggling readers. In S.J. Samuels & A. Farstrup (Eds.). Reading fluency: The forgotten dimension of reading success. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

  • Tunmer, W., & Hoover, W. A. (2019). The cognitive foundations of learning to read: A framework for preventing and remediating reading difficulties. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 24(1), 75–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/19404158.2019.1614081

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tunmer, W. E., & Chapman, J. W. (2012a). The simple view of reading redux: Vocabulary knowledge and the independent components hypothesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45(5), 453–466. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219411432685

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tunmer, W. E. (2008). Recent developments in reading intervention research: Introduction to the special issue. Reading & Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 21, 299–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tunmer, W. E., & Chapman, J. W. (2012b). Does set for variability mediate the influence of vocabulary knowledge on the development of word recognition skills? Scientific Studies of Reading, 16(2), 122–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2010.542527

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tunmer, W. E., & Greaney, K. T. (2010). Defining dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43, 229–243.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woolley G. (2011). Reading Comprehension. In Reading comprehension. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1174-7_2

  • Yeung, P., Ho, C. S., Chik, P. P., Lo, L., Luan, H., Chan, D. W., et al. (2011). Reading and spelling Chinese among beginning readers: What skills make a difference? Scientific Studies of Reading, 15(4), 285–313. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2010.482149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yeung, P.-S., Ho, C.S.-H., Chan, D.W.-O., Chung, K.K.-H., & Wong, Y.-K. (2013). A model of reading comprehension in Chinese elementary school children. Learning and Individual Differences, 25, 55–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2013.03.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, L. J., & Anual, S. B. (2008). The role of vocabulary in reading comprehension: The case of secondary school students learning English in Singapore. Regional Language Centre Journal, 39(1), 51–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688208091140

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ziegler, J. C., & Goswami, U. (2005). Reading Acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading across languages: A psycholinguistic grain size theory. Psychological Bulletin, 131(1), 3–29. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.3

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Professor Funda Acarlar (Hasan Kalyoncu University, TR) for her contributions to the design of the study.

Funding

This study was a part of a national reading project supported by the Turkish Academy of Science (Project number: 117K976).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Birkan Guldenoglu.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

We have no conflict of interest to disclose.

Ethical Approval

Participants were collected in accordance with the code of conduct of research with human material in the Turkish Academy of Science. This study was approved by the ethical educational committee of the responsible university where the study was conducted.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from both all individual participants involved in the study and their teachers.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Kargin, T., Guldenoglu, B., Gengec, H. et al. The Importance of Morphological Knowledge in the Reading Comprehension Difficulties in a Highly Agglutinative Language: Evidence from Poor Comprehenders. J Psycholinguist Res 52, 653–673 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-022-09916-1

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-022-09916-1

Keywords

Navigation