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Laboratory- and technical-scale comparison of chlorate and perchlorate formation during drinking water electrolysis: a field study

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Abstract

Previous work has shown that even mixed metal oxide (MMO) anodes are able to form chlorate and perchlorate when solutions containing Cl− ions are electrolysed in undivided cells. Both chlorate and perchlorate are under suspicion for causing several diseases. For the first time, different research groups systematically studied electrode materials [three MMO anode materials and one boron-doped diamond (BDD) anode material as well as technical cells of four producers] for chlorate and perchlorate formation potential under laboratory- and technical-scale conditions. Natural and artificial water samples were used mostly at room temperature, at current densities between 10 and 571 A m−2, with the highest being for BDD anodes, and focusing on water samples with chloride contents between 20 mg dm−3 (0.56 mmol L−1) and 250 mg L−1 (7.04 mmol L−1). Two model water samples were defined to be used as test standards in the future. Only one MMO material showed chlorate formation in the laboratory experiments, whereas in technical cells, in all four cases, chlorate was detected, but perchlorate was not found on MMO anodes. New introduced criteria allow a better risk quantification. According to these criteria, all three cells with MMO anodes are safe when chlorate is limited in drinking water to be below 0.2 mg dm−3. Taking into consideration the advisory perchlorate concentration level suggested by the U.S.E.P.A., no recommendation can be given for cells with BDD anodes with significant chlorate and perchlorate formation.

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Abbreviations

AOX:

Absorbable organic halogens (mg L−1)

BDD:

Boron doped diamond

DPD:

Diethyl-p-phenylendiamine

CCR:

Chlorate-to-chlorine ratio (mg mg−1 × 1000 or µg mg−1)

c:

Concentration (mg L−1)

diss:

Dissolved

DPD:

Diphenylendiamine

F:

Faraday constant (as mol−1)

FAC:

Free active chlorine (mg L−1)

I:

Current (A)

MMO:

Mixed metal oxide

n.d.:

Not detected

PCR:

Perchlorate-to-chlorine ratio (mg mg−1 × 1000 or µg mg−1)

Q:

Flow rate (m3 h−1)

rec:

Recalculated

Re:

Reynolds number

rpm:

Revolutions per minute

SCP:

Specific charge passed (Ah L−1)

V:

Volume (L)

WHO:

World Health Organization

TOC:

Total organic carbon (mg L−1)

THM:

Trihalogenmethanes (mg L−1)

THM0.5:

THM value measured after 0.5 h (mg L−1)

THM24:

THM value measured after 24 h (mg L−1)

TCR:

THM-to-chlorine ratio (mg mg−1 × 1000 or µg mg−1)

t:

Time (h)

U.S.E.P.A:

United States Environmental Protection Agency

°dH:

Degree of water hardness, still used in Germany (1°dH is equivalent to 0.1783 mM content of alkaline earth metal ions)

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Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank German DVGW, DBU, UBA Berlin-Marienfelde and the companies Ecotron, Hydrosys, Newtec and RWO for Project support (FKZ W 10/02/08-B and FKZ 25386-23).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Anhalt University, FB 7, Bernburger Str. 55, 06366, Koethen, Germany

    M. E. Henry Bergmann, Tatiana Iourtchouk, Jens Hartmann & Daniela Gerngroß

  2. TZW Dresden, Wasserwerkstraße 2, 01326, Dresden, Germany

    Wido Schmidt, Michaela Fischer & Gabi Nüsske

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  1. M. E. Henry Bergmann
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  2. Tatiana Iourtchouk
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Correspondence to M. E. Henry Bergmann.

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Bergmann, M.E.H., Iourtchouk, T., Schmidt, W. et al. Laboratory- and technical-scale comparison of chlorate and perchlorate formation during drinking water electrolysis: a field study. J Appl Electrochem 45, 765–778 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10800-015-0826-z

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10800-015-0826-z

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