Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Plants used in constructed wetlands with horizontal subsurface flow: a review

  • Wetland Restoration
  • Review Paper
  • Published:
Hydrobiologia Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The presence of macrophytes is one of the most conspicuous features of wetlands and their presence distinguishes constructed wetlands from unplanted soil filters or lagoons. The macrophytes growing in constructed wetlands have several properties in relation to the treatment process that make them an essential component of the design. However, only several roles of macrophytes apply to constructed wetlands with horizontal subsurface flow (HF CWs). The plants used in HF CWs designed for wastewater treatment should therefore: (1) be tolerant of high organic and nutrient loadings, (2) have rich belowground organs (i.e. roots and rhizomes) in order to provide substrate for attached bacteria and oxygenation (even very limited) of areas adjacent to roots and rhizomes and (3) have high aboveground biomass for winter insulation in cold and temperate regions and for nutrient removal via harvesting. The comparison of treatment efficiency of vegetated HF CWs and unplanted filters is not unanimous but most studies have shown that systems with plants achieve higher treatment efficiency. The vegetation has mostly a positive effect, i.e. supports higher treatment efficiency, for organics and nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus. By far the most frequently used plant around the globe is Phragmites australis (Common reed). Species of the genera Typha (latifolia, angustifolia, domingensis, orientalis and glauca) and Scirpus (e.g. lacustris, validus, californicus and acutus) spp. are other commonly used species. In many countries, and especially in the tropics and subtropics, local plants including ornamental species are used for HF CWs.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abira, M. A., J. J. A. van Bruggen & P. Denny, 2005. Potential of a tropical subsurface constructed wetland to remove phenol from pre-treated pulp and papermill wastewater. Water Science and Technology 51(9): 173–175.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Adcock, P. & G. G. Ganf, 1994. Growth characteristics of three macrophyte species growing in natural and constructed wetland system. Water Science and Technology 29: 95–102.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Akratos, C. S. & V. A. Tsihrintzis, 2007. Effect of temperature, HRT, vegetation and porous media on removal efficiency of pilot-scale horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands. Ecological Engineering 29: 173–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al Omari, A. & M. Fayyad, 2003. Treatment of domestic wastewater by subsurface flow constructed wetlands in Jordan. Desalination 155: 27–39.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong, W., 1978. Root aeration in the wetland conditions. In Hook, D. D. & R. M. M. Crawford (eds), Plant Life in Anaerobic Environment. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, MI: 269–297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong, W., 1979. Aeration in higher plants. In Woodhouse, H. W. W. (ed.), Advances in Botanical Research. Academic Press, London: 226–332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong, J. & W. Armstrong, 1988. Phragmites australis – a preliminary study of soil-oxidizing sites and internal gas transport pathways. New Phytologist 108: 373–382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong, J. & W. Armstrong, 1990. Light-enhanced convective throughflow increases oxygenation in rhizomes and rhizosphere of Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. New Phytologist 114: 121–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ascuntar Rios, D., A. F. Toro Vélez, M. R. Peňa & C. A. Madera Parra, 2009. Changes of flow patterns in a horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland treating domestic wastewater in tropical regions. Ecological Engineering 35: 274–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barber, D. A. & J. K. Martin, 1976. The release of organic substances by cereal roots into soils. New Phytologist 76: 69–80.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Behrends, L. L., E. Bailey, M. J. Bulls, H. S. Coonrod & F. J. Sikora, 1994. Seasonal trends in growth and biomass accumulation of selected nutrients and metals in six species of emergent aquatic macrophytes. In Proceedings of 4th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, ICWS’94 Secretariat, Guangzhou: 274–289.

  • Belmont, M. A., E. Cantellano, S. Thompson, M. Williamson, A. Sánchez & C. D. Metcalfe, 2004. Treatment of domestic wastewater in a pilot-scale natural treatment system in central Mexico. Ecological Engineering 23: 299–311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernard, J. M. & T. E. Lauve, 1995. A comparison of growth and nutrient uptake in Phalaris arundinacea L. growing in a wetland and a constructed bed receiving landfill leachate. Wetlands 15: 176–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Billore, S. K., N. Singh, H. K. Ram, J. K. Sharma, V. P. Singh, R. M. Nelson & P. Das, 2001. Treatment of a molasses based distillery effluent in a constructed wetland in central India. Water Science and Technology 44(11/12): 441–448.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Billore, S., K. Prashant, J. K. Sharma, N. Singh, H. Ram, P. Dass & R. Jain, 2008. Restoration and conservation of stagnant water bodies by gravel-bed treatment wetlands and artificial floating reed beds in tropical India. In Billore, S., P. Dass & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 11th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, Vol. 1. Institute of Environment Management and Plant Sciences, Vikram University, Ujjain: 408–414.

  • Bindu, T., V. P. Sylas, M. Mahesh, P. S. Rakesh & E. V. Ramasamy, 2008. Pollutant removal from domestic wastewater with Taro (Colocasia esculenta) planted in a subsurface flow system. Ecological Engineering 33: 68–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Birkbeck, A. E., D. Reil & R. Hunter, 1990. Application of natural and engineered wetlands for treatment of low-strength leachate. In Cooper, P. F. & B. C. Findlater (eds), Constructed Wetlands in Water Pollution Control. Pergamon Press, Oxford: 411–418.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bista, K. R. & N. R. Khatiwada, 2008. Assessment of reed bed technology for wastewater treatment in Nepal. In Billore, S., P. Dass & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 11th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, Vol. 1. Institute of Environment Management and Plant Sciences, Vikram University, Ujjain: 1124–1129.

  • Bista, K. R., P. Sharma, N. R. Khatiwada & K. K. Bhattarani, 2004. Cost effective design of horizontal reed beds treating wastewater in Nepal. In Proceedings of 9th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. ASTEE and Cemagref, Lyon: 299–305.

  • Brisson, J. & F. Chazarenc, 2009. Maximizing pollutant removal in constructed wetlands: should we pay more attention to macrophyte species selection? Science of the Total Environment 407: 1923–1930.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brix, H., 1989. Gas exchange through dead culms of reed Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steudel. Aquatic Botany 35: 81–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brix, H., 1993. Macrophyte-mediated oxygen transfer in wetlands: transport mechanisms and rates. In Moshiri, A. G. (ed.), Constructed Wetlands for Water Quality Improvement. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL: 391–398.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brix, H., 1994. Functions of macrophytes in constructed wetlands. Water Science and Technology 29: 71–78.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brix, H., 1997. Do macrophytes play a role in constructed treatment wetlands? Water Science and Technology 35(5): 11–17.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brix, H., 1998. Denmark. In Vymazal, J., H. Brix, P. F. Cooper, M. B. Green & R. Haberl (eds), Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment in Europe. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden: 123–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brix, H., 2003. Plants used in constructed wetlands and their functions. In Dias, V. & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of Conference on the Use of Aquatic Macrophytes for Wastewater Treatment in Constructed Wetlands. ICN and INAG, Lisbon: 81–109.

  • Brix, H. & H.-H. Schierup, 1989. Sewage treatment in constructed wetlands – Danish experience. Water Science and Technology 21: 1665–1668.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brix, H. & H.-H. Schierup, 1990. Soil oxygenation in constructed reed beds: the role of macrophyte and soil–atmosphere interface oxygen transport. In Cooper, P. F. & B. C. Findlater (eds), Constructed Wetlands in Water Pollution Control. Pergamon Press, Oxford: 53–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browning, K. & M. Greenway, 2003. Nutrient removal and plant biomass in a subsurface flow constructed wetland in Brisbane, Australia. Water Science and Technology 48(5): 183–189.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bulc, T. G., A. Ojstrsek & D. Vrhovšek, 2006. The use of constructed wetland for textile wastewater treatment. In Dias, V. & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 10th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. MAOTDR 2006, Lisbon: 1667–1675.

  • Burdick, D. M. & I. A. Mendelssohn, 1990. Relationship between anatomical and metabolic response to waterlogging in the coastal grass Spartina patens. Journal of Experimental Botany 41: 233–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burgoon, P. S., K. R. Reddy & T. A. DeBusk, 1989. Domestic wastewater treatment using emergent plants cultured in gravel and plastic substrate. In Hammer, D. A. (ed.), Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI: 536–541.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byekwaso, E., F. Kansiime, J. Logstrum & S. Andersen, 2002. The optimisation of a reed bed filter for effluent treatment at Kasese Cobalt Company Limited, Uganda. In Proceedings of 8th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: 660–668.

  • Calheiros, C. S. C., A. O. S. S. Rangel & P. K. L. Castro, 2007. Constructed wetland systems vegetated with different plants applied to the treatment of tannery wastewater. Water Research 41: 1790–1798.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chapple, M., P. Cooper, D. Cooper & M. Revitt, 2002. Pilot trials of a constructed wetland system for reducing the dissolved hydrocarbon in the runoff from a decommissioned refinery. In Proceedings of 8th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. University of Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania/IWA: 877–883.

  • Ciria, M. P., M. L. Solano & P. Soriano, 2005. Role of macrophyte Typha latifolia in a constructed wetland for wastewater treatment and assessment of its potential as a biomass fuel. Biosystems Engineering 92: 535–544.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Čížková, H., 1999. Growth dynamics and ecophysiology of Phragmites in relation to the climatic conditions in boreal-Mediterranean and oceanic-continental gradients. In Brix, H. (ed.), Eureed II. Final Project for Contracts ENV4-CT95-0147 and IC20-CT-960020. University of Aarhus, Denmark: 45–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Čížková-Končalová, H., J. Květ & J. Lukavská, 1996. Response of Phragmites australis, Glyceria maxima and Typha latifolia to addition of piggery sewage in a flooded sand culture. Wetlands Ecology and Management 4: 43–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, J., L. Hench, K. Garbutt, A. Sextone, G. Bissonnette & J. Skousen, 2001. Treatment of domestic wastewater by three plant species in constructed wetlands. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 128: 283–295.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, B., J. V. McArthur & R. R. Sharitz, 2004. Plant effects on microbial assemblages and remediation of acidic coal pile runoff in mesocosm treatment wetlands. Ecological Engineering 23: 107–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Comeau, Y., J. Brisson, J.-P. Réville, C. Forget & A. Drizo, 2001. Phosphorus removal from trout farm effluents by constructed wetlands. Water Science and Technology 44(11/12): 55–60.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, P. F., G. D. Job, M. B. Green & R. B. E. Shutes, 1996. Reed Beds and Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment. WRc Publications, Medmenham, Marlow.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coops, H., F. W. B. van der Brink & G. van der Velde, 1996. Growth and morphological responses of four helophyte species in an experimental water-depth gradient. Aquatic Botany 54: 11–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coult, D. A., 1964. Observations on gas movement in the rhizome of Menyanthes trifoliata L. with comments on the role of the endodermis. Journal of Experimental Botany 15: 205–218.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dacey, J. W. H., 1980. Internal winds in water lilies – an adaptation for life in anaerobic sediments. Science 210: 1017–1019.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dahab, M. F. & R. Y. Surampalli, 2001. Subsurface-flow constructed wetlands treatment in the plains: five years of experience. Water Science and Technology 44(11/12): 375–380.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dallas, S. & G. Ho, 2005. Subsurface flow reedbeds using alternative media for the treatment of domestic greywater in Monteverde, Costa Rica, Central America. Water Science and Technology 51(10): 119–128.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dallas, S., B. Scheffe & G. Ho, 2004. Reedbeds for greywater treatment – case study in Santa Elena-Monteverde, Costa Rica, Central America. Ecological Engineering 23: 55–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, T. H. & P. D. Cottingham, 1992. The use of constructed wetlands for treating industrial effluent. In Proceedings of 3rd International Conference on Wetland Systems in Water Pollution Control. IAWQ and Australian Water and Wastewater Association, Sydney, NSW: 53.1–53.5.

  • Davison, L., T. Headley & K. Pratt, 2005. Aspects of design, structure, performance and operation of reed beds – eight years’ experience in northeastern New South Wales, Australia. Water Science and Technology 51: 129–138.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • De Lucas, A., J. Villaseñor, R. Gómez & J. Mena, 2006. Influence of polyphenols in winery wastewater wetland treatment with different plant species. In Dias, V. & Vymazal, J. (eds), Proceedings of 10th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. MAOTDR 2006, Lisbon: 1677–1685.

  • De Zeeuw, W., G. Heijnen & J. De Vries, 1990. Reed bed treatment as a wastewater (post) treatment alternative in the potato starch industry. In Cooper, P. F. & B. C. Findlater (eds), Constructed Wetlands in Water Pollution Control. Pergamon Press, Oxford: 551–553.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dias, V. N. & P. M. Pacheco, 2001. Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment in Portugal: a global overview. In Vymazal, J. (ed.), Transformations of Nutrients in Natural and Constructed Wetlands. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden: 271–303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dias, V. N., C. Canseiro, A. R. Gomes, B. Correia & C. Bicho, 2006. Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment in Portugal: a global overview. In Dias, V. & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 10th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. MAOTDR 2006, Lisbon: 91–101.

  • Dickinson, C. H., 1983. Micro-organisms in peatlands. In Gore, A. J. P. (ed.), Mires-Swamp, Bog, Fen, And Moor. Ecosystems of the World, Vol. 4A. Elsevier, Amsterdam: 225–245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diwan, V., P. Shrivastava & V. Vyas, 2008. Horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland in a tropical climate: a performance study from Ujjain, India. In Billore, S., P. Dass & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 11th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, Vol. 1. Institute of Environment Management and Plant Sciences, Vikram University, Ujjain: 711–716.

  • Dornelas, F. L., M. B. Machado & M. von Sperling, 2008. Performance evaluation of planted and unplanted subsurface-flow constructed wetlands for the post-treatment of UASB reactor effluents. In Billore, S., P. Dass & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 11th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, Vol. 1. Institute of Environment Management and Plant Sciences, Vikram University, Ujjain: 400–407.

  • Drew, M. C., 1979. Plant responses to anaerobic conditions in soil and solution culture. Current Advances in Plant Science 36: 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drizo, A., E. Twohig, D. Weber, S. Bird & D. Ross, 2006. Constructed wetlands for dairy effluent treatment in Vermont: two years of operation. In Dias, V. & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 10th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. MAOTDR 2006, Lisbon: 1611–1621.

  • Droboťko, V. G., E. Y. Rashba, B. E. Aizenman, S. I. Zelepukha, S. I. Novikova & M. B. Kaganskaya, 1958. Antimicrobial activity of alkaloids obtained from Valeriana officinalis, Chelidonium majus, Nuphar luteum and Asarum europium. Antibiotiki 22, Chem. Abstr. 53: 12589d.

  • Duncan, C. B. M., 1992. Constructed subsurface flow wetland treatment of municipal wastewater: some New Zealand experience. In Proceedings of 3rd International Conference on Wetland Systems in Water Pollution Control. IAWQ and Australian Water and Wastewater Association, Sydney, NSW: 23.1–23.8.

  • Durán de Bazúa, C., R. Haberl, I. Kreiner, Ranjani-Krishnan, V. M. Luna-Pabello, F. E. Fenoglio-Limón, C. Kneidinger, S. Millán-Hernández, M. Miranda-Rios, H. F. Ramírez-Carillo, N. V. Salinas-Castillo, H. Sánchez-Garcia, P. Schaller & M. G. Soto-Esquivel, 2000. Artificial wetlands: viable options for rural, suburban, and urban areas in Mexico City. In Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. Lake Buena Vista, Florida. University of Florida, Gainesville/International Water Association: 873–879.

  • Dykyjová, D., 1978. Nutrient uptake by littoral communities of helophytes. In Dykyjová, D. & J. Květ (eds), Pond Littoral Ecosystems. Structure and Functioning, Ecological Studies, Vol. 28. Springer-Verlag, Berlin: 257–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dykyjová, D. & D. Hradecká, 1976. Production ecology of Phragmites communis. 1. Relation of two ecotypes to the microclimate and nutrient conditions of habitat. Folia Geobotanica et Phytotaxonomica 11: 23–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dykyjová, D. & J. Květ, 1982. Mineral nutrient economy in wetlands of the Třeboň Basin Biosphere Reserve. In Gopal, B., R. E. Turner, R. G. Wetzel & D. F. Whigham (eds), Wetlands: Ecology and Management. National Institute of Ecology and Institute of Science Publication, Jaipur: 325–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dykyjová, D. & B. Úlehlová, 1998. Mineral economy and cycling of minerals in wetlands. In Westlake, D. F., J. Květ & A. Szczepański (eds), The Production Ecology of Wetlands. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 318–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eckhardt, D. A. V., J. M. Surface & J. H. Peverly, 1999. A constructed wetland system for treatment of landfill leachate, Monroe County, New York. In Mulamoottil, G., E. A. McBean & F. Rever (eds), Constructed Wetlands for the Treatment of Landfill Leachates. Lewis Publisher/CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL: 205–222.

    Google Scholar 

  • El Hafiane, F. & B. El Hamouri, 2004. Subsurface-horizontal flow constructed wetland for polishing high rate ponds effluent. In Proceedings of Conference on Wetland Systems and Waste Stabilization Ponds Communications of Common Interest. ASTEE, Lyon: 141–146.

  • Esser, D., P. Jusiak & A. Liénard, 2006. The use of constructed wetlands for the treatment of effluents from housing schemes and villages in an island in the tropics: the case of Mayotte. In Dias, V. & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 10th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. MAOTDR, Lisbon: 877–888.

  • Finlayson, C. M. & A. J. Chick, 1983. Testing the potential of aquatic plants to treat abattoir effluent. Water Research 17: 415–422.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Finlayson, M., A. Chick, I. von Oertzen & D. Mitchell, 1987. Treatment of piggery effluent by an aquatic plant filter. Biological Wastes 19: 179–196.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fraser, L. H., S. M. Carty & D. Steer, 2004. A test of four plant species to reduce total nitrogen and total phosphorus from soil leachate in subsurface wetland microcosms. Bioresource Technology 94: 185–192.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gagnon, V., F. Chazarenc, Y. Comeau & J. Brisson, 2006. Influence of macrophytes species on microbial density and activity in constructed wetlands. In Proceedings of 10th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. MAOTDR 2006, Lisbon: 1025–1033.

  • Galatowitsch, S. M., N. O. Anderson & P. D. Ascher, 1999. Invasiveness in wetland plants in temperate North America. Wetlands 19: 733–755.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galatowitsch, S. M., D. C. Whited, R. Lehtinen, J. Husveth & K. Schik, 2000. The vegetation of wet meadows in relation to their land-use. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 60: 121–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gasiunas, V., Z. Strusevičius & M.-S. Strusevičiéne, 2005. Pollutant removal by horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands in Lithuania. Journal of Environmental Science and Health 40A: 1467–1478.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gersberg, R. M., B. V. Elkins, S. R. Lyon & C. R. Goldman, 1986. Role of aquatic plants in wastewater treatment by artificial wetlands. Water Research 20: 363–368.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gerth, A., A. Hebner, G. Kiessig, A. Küchler & A. Zellmer, 2005. Passive treatment of minewater at the Schlema-Alberoda site. In Book of Abstracts of the International Symposium on Wetland Pollutant Dynamics and Control. Ghent University, Belgium: 53–54.

  • Gessner, M. O., B. Schieferstein, U. Müller, S. Barkmann & U. A. Lenfers, 1996. A partial budget of primary organic carbon flows in the littoral zone of a hardwater lake. Aquatic Botany 55: 93–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giæver, H. M., 2003. Experience and results from the northernmost constructed wetland in Norway. In Mander, Ü. & P. Jenssen (eds), Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment in Cold Climates. WIT Press, Southampton: 215–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gopal, B. & U. Goel, 1993. Competition and allelopathy in aquatic plant communities. Botanical Reviews 59: 155–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gopal, B. & V. Masing, 1990. Biology and ecology. In Patten, B. C. (ed.), Wetlands and Shallow Continental Water Bodies. SPB Academic Publishing, The Hague: 91–239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorra, R., M. Freppaz, R. Ambrosoli & E. Zanini, 2007. Seasonal performance of a constructed wetland for wastewater treatment in alpine environment. In Borin, M. & S. Bacelle (eds), Proceedings of International Conference on Multi Functions of Wetland Systems. P.A.N. s.r.l., Padova: 66–67.

  • Gray, K. R., A. J. Biddlestone, G. Job & E. Galanos, 1990. The use of reed beds for the treatment of agricultural effluents. In Cooper, P. F. & B. C. Findlater (eds), Constructed Wetlands in Water Pollution Control. Pergamon Press, Oxford: 333–346.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, E. K. & S. M. Galatowitsch, 2001. Differences in wetland plant community establishment with additions of nitrate-N and invasive species (Phalaris arundinacea and Typha x glauca). Canadian Journal of Botany 79: 170–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenway, M., 1996. Nutrient bioaccumulation in wetland plants receiving municipal effluent in constructed wetlands in tropical Australia. In Proceedings of 5th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, Chapter II/1. Universität für Bodenkultur, Vienna.

  • Greenwood, D. J., 1961. The effect of oxygen concentration on the decomposition of organic materials in soil. Plant and Soil 14: 360–376.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gries, C., L. Kappen & R. Lösch, 1990. Mechanism of flood tolerance in reed, Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steudel. New Phytologist 114: 589–593.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hadders, G. & R. Olsson, 1997. Harvest of grass for combustion in late summer and in spring. Biomass and Bioenergy 12: 171–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ham, J. H., C. G. Yoon, S. J. Hwang & K. W. Jung, 2004. Seasonal performance of constructed wetland and winter storage pond for sewage treatment in Korea. Journal of Environmental Science and Health A39: 1329–1343.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hammer, D. A., B. P. Pullin, D. K. McMurry & J. W. Lee, 1993. Testing color removal from pulp mill wastewaters with constructed wetlands. In Moshiri, G. A. (ed.), Constructed Wetlands for Water Pollution Improvement. CRC Press/Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL: 449–452.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haslam, S. M., 1971a. Community regulation in Phragmites communis Trin I. Monodominant stands. Journal of Ecology 59: 65–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haslam, S. M., 1971b. The development and establishment of young plants of Phragmites communis Trin. Annals of Botany 35: 1059–1072.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haslam, S. M., 1972. Biological Flora of the British Isles, No. 128. Phragmites communis Trin. Journal of Ecology 60: 585–610.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haslam, S. M., 1973. Some aspects of the life history and autecology of Phragmites communis Trin. A review. Polskie Archiwum Hydrobiologii 20: 79–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hatano, K., C. C. Trettin, C. H. House & A. G. Wolumn, 1993. Microbial populations and decomposition activity in three subsurface flow constructed wetlands. In Moshiri, G. A. (ed.), Constructed Wetlands for Water Quality Improvement. CRC Press/Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL: 541–547.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haule, A. T., H. B. Pratap, H. J. Y. Katima, T. S. A. Mbwette & K. Njau, 2002. Nitrogen removal from domestic wastewater in subsurface flow constructed wetlands by indigenous macrophytes in the tropics. A comparative study for six potential macrophytes in Tanzania. In Proceedings of 8th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. University of Dar es Salaam and IWA, Arusha, Tanzania: 938–951.

  • Hawke, C. J. & P. V. José, 1996. Reedbed Management for Commercial and Wildlife Interests. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, Sandy, Bedfordshire.

    Google Scholar 

  • Headley, T. R., D. O. Huett & L. Davison, 2001. The removal of nutrients from plant nursery irrigation runoff in subsurface horizontal-flow wetlands. Water Science and Technology 44(11/12): 77–84.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hernández, L. & P. Sánchez-Navaro, 2008. Integration of constructed wetland systems technology in the Maxican Caribbean: a review of the Akumal experience. In Billore, S., P. Dass & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 11th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, Vol. 1. Institute of Environment Management and Plant Sciences, Vikram University, Ujjain: 912–917.

  • Hill, C. M., J. M. Duxbury, L. D. Goehring & T. Peck, 2003. Designing constructed wetlands to remove phosphorus from barnyard run-off: seasonal variability in loads and treatment. In Mander, Ü. & P. Jenssen (eds), Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment in Cold Climates. WIT Press, Southampton: 181–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hocking, P. J., C. M. Finlayson & A. J. Chick, 1983. The biology of Australian weeds. 12. Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steudel. Journal of Australian Institute of Agricultural Science 40: 123–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hootsmans, M. J. M. & I. Blindow, 1994. Allelopathic limitation of algal growth by macrophytes. In van Vierssen, W., M. Hootsmans & J. Vermaat (eds), Lake Veluwe, a Macrophyte-Dominated System Under Eutrophication Stress. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht: 175–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, M. B. & M. C. Drew, 1984. Effects of flooding on growth and metabolism of herbaceous plants. In Kozlowski, T. T. (ed.), Flooding and Plant Growth. Academic Press, New York: 47–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jakrlová, J., 1975. Primary productivity and plant chemical composition in floodplain meadows. Acta Scientiae Naturalis (Brno) 9: 1–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jardinier, N., G. Blake, A. Mauchamp & G. Merlin, 2001. Design and performance of experimental constructed wetlands treating coke plant effluents. Water Science and Technology 44(11/12): 485–491.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ji, G., T. Sun, Q. Zhou, X. Sui, S. Chang & P. Li, 2002. Constructed subsurface slow wetland for treating heavy oil-produced water of the Liaohe Oilfield in China. Ecological Engineering 18: 459–465.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jing, S.-R., Y.-F. Lin, D.-Y. Lee & T. W. Wang, 2001. Nutrient removal from polluted river water by using constructed wetlands. Bioresource Technology 76: 131–135.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, C. A., 1991. Sediments and nutrient retention by freshwater wetlands: effects on surface water quality. CRC Critical Reviews in Environmental Control 21: 491–565.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Junsan, W., C. Yuhua & S. Qian, 2000. The application of constructed wetland to effluent purification in pig plant. In Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, Lake Buena Vista, Florida. University of Florida, Gainesville/International Water Association: 1477–1480.

  • Juwarkar, A. S., B. Oke, A. Juwarkar & S. M. Patnaik, 1994. Domestic wastewater treatment through constructed wetland in India. In Proceedings of 4th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. ICWS Secretariat, Guangzhou, P.R. China (Appendix).

  • Kadlec, R. H. & R. L. Knight, 1996. Treatment Wetlands. Lewis/CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kadlec, R. H. & S. D. Wallace, 2008. Treatment Wetlands, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kantawanichkul, S. & S. Wara-Aswapati, 2005. LAS removal by a horizontal flow constructed wetland in tropical climate. In Vymazal, J. (ed.), Natural and Constructed Wetlands: Nutrients, Metals and Management. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden: 261–270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kantawanichkul, S., S. Karnchanawong & S. R. Jing, 2008. Treatment of fermented fish production wastewater by constructed wetland system in Thailand. In Billore, S., P. Dass & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 11th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, Vol. 1. Institute of Environment Management and Plant Sciences, Vikram University, Ujjain: 660–666.

  • Kao, C. M., J. Y. Wang, H. Y. Lee & C. K. Wen, 2001. Application of a constructed wetland for non-point source pollution control. Water Science and Technology 44(11/12): 585–590.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karathanasis, A. D., C. L. Potter & M. S. Coyne, 2003. Vegetation effect on fecal bacteria, BOD, and suspended solid removal in constructed wetlands treating domestic wastewater. Ecological Engineering 20: 157–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaseva, M. E., 2004. Performance of a sub-surface flow constructed wetland in polishing pre-treated wastewater – a tropical case study. Water Research 38: 681–687.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kato, K., T. Koba, H. Ietsugu, T. Saigusa, T. Nozoe, S. Kobayashi, K. Kitagawa & S. Yanagiya, 2006. Early performance of hybrid reed bed system to treat milking parlour wastewater in cold climate in Japan. In Dias, V. & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 10th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. MAOTDR 2006, Lisbon: 1111–1118.

  • Katsenovich, Y. P., A. Hummel-Batista, A. J. Ravinet & J. F. Miller, 2009. Performance evaluation of constructed wetlands in a tropical region. Ecological Engineering 35: 1529–1537.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kätterer, T. & O. Andrén, 1999. Growth dynamics of reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea L.) and its allocation of biomass and nitrogen belowground in a field receiving daily irrigation and fertilisation. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 54: 21–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kephart, K. D. & D. R. Buxton, 1993. Forage quality responses of C3 and C4 perennial grasses to shade. Crop Science 33: 831–837.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kern, J., 2003. Seasonal efficiency of a constructed wetland for treating dairy farm wastewater. In Mander, Ü. & P. Jenssen (eds), Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater treatment in Cold Climates. WIT Press, Southampton: 197–214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kern, J. & I. Brettar, 2002. Nitrogen turnover in a subsurface constructed wetland receiving dairy farm wastewater. In Pries, J. (ed.), Treatment Wetlands for Water Quality Improvement. CH2M Hill Canada Limited, Waterloo, ON: 15–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khalil, A., P. Prudent, M. M. Bettaieb & M. Domeizel, 2005. Pilot treatment plant: constructed soil reed bed for a cheese dairy farm effluent. In Book of Abstracts of the International Symposium on Wetland Pollutant Dynamics and Control. Ghent University, Belgium: 77–78.

  • Kinsley, C. B., A. M. Crolla, N. Kuyucak, M. Zimmer & A. Lafleche, 2006. Nitrogen dynamics in a constructed wetland system treating landfill leachate. In Dias, V. & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 10th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. MAOTDR, Lisbon: 295–305.

  • Kludze, H. K. & R. D. DeLaune, 1996. Soil redox intensity effects on oxygen exchange and growth of cattail and sawgrass. Soil Science Society of America Journal 60: 616–621.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Küçük, O. S., F. Sengul & I. K. Kapdan, 2003. Removal of ammonia from tannery effluents in a reed bed constructed wetland. Water Science and Technology 48(11/12): 179–186.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Květ, J. & I. Ostrý, 1988. Mineral nutrient accumulation in the principal plant communities in the Rožmberk fishpond littoral. In Hroudová, Z. (ed.), Littoral Vegetation of the Rožmberk Fishpond and its Mineral Nutrient Economy, Studie ČSAV, 88/9. Academia, Praha: 97–104.

  • Květ, J., M. Tetter & F. Klimeš, 1996. Grassland production as a basis for agricultural use of the Lužnice floodplain. In Prach, K., J. Jeník & A. R. G. Lange (eds), Floodplain Ecology and Management. SPB Academic Publishing, Amsterdam: 245–249.

    Google Scholar 

  • Květ, J., J. Dušek & Š. Husák, 1999. Vascular plants suitable for wastewater treatment in temperate zones. In Vymazal, J. (ed.), Nutrient Cycling and Retention in Natural and Constructed Wetlands. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden: 101–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kyambadde, J., F. Kansiime, L. Gumaelius & G. Dalhammar, 2004. A comparative study of Cyperus papyrus and Miscanthidium violaceum-based constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment in tropical climate. Water Research 38: 475–485.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Laing, H. E., 1940. Respiration of the rhizomes of Nuphar advenum and other water plants. American Journal of Botany 27: 574–581.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lavergne, S. & J. Molofsky, 2004. Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) as a biological model in the study of plant invasions. Critical Reviews in Plant Science 23: 415–429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lavigne, R. L. & J. Jankiewicz, 2000. Artificial wetland treatment technology and it’s use in the Amazon River forests of Ecuador. In Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. University of Florida, Gainesville: 813–820.

  • Lawson, G. J., 1985. Cultivating reeds (Phragmites australis) for root zone treatment of sewage. Contract Report ITE, 965th ed. Water Research Centre, Cumbria.

  • Lee, C. Y., C. C. Lee, F. Y. Lee, S. K. Tseng & C. J. Liao, 2004. Performance of subsurface flow constructed wetland taking pretreated swine effluent under heavy loads. Bioresource Technology 92: 173–179.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lewandowski, I., J. M. O. Scurlock, E. Lindvall & M. Christou, 2003. The development and current status of perennial rhizomatous grasses as energy crops in the US and Europe. Biomass and Bioenergy 25: 335–361.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J., Y. Wen, Q. Zhou, Z. Xingjie, X. Li, S. Yang & T. Lin, 2008. Influence of vegetation and substrate on the removal and transformation of dissolved organic matter in horizontal subsurface-flow constructed wetland. Bioresource Technology 99: 4990–4996.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lin, Y. F., S. R. Jing, D. Y. Lee & T. W. Wang, 2002. Nutrient removal from aquaculture wastewater using a constructed wetlands system. Aquaculture 209: 169–184.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lin, Y. F., S. R. Jing & D. Y. Lee, 2003. The potential use of constructed wetlands in a recirculating aquaculture system for shrimp culture. Environmental Pollution 123: 107–113.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • M’hiri, F. M., S. Kouki & B. Hanchi, 2005. Performance of constructed wetland treating domestic wastewaters in Tunisia: first experience. In Book of Abstracts of the International Symposium on Wetland Pollutant Dynamics and Control. Ghent University, Belgium: 114–115.

  • Maddison, M., K. Soosaar, L. Lõhmus & Ü. Mander, 2003. Typha populations in wastewater treatment wetlands in Estonia: biomass production, retention of nutrients and heavy metals. In Mander, Ü., C. Vohla & A. Poom (eds), Proceedings of Conference on Constructed and Riverine Wetlands for Optimal Control of Wastewater at Catchment Scale. University of Tartu, Tartu: 274–281.

  • Maddison, M., T. Mauring, K. Remm, M. Lesta & Ü. Mander, 2009. Dynamics of Typha latifolia L. populations in treatment wetlands in Estonia. Ecological Engineering 35: 258–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mæhlum, T. & P. D. Jenssen, 2003. Design and performance of integrated subsurface flow wetlands in a cold climate. In Mander, Ü. & P. Jenssen (eds), Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment in Cold Climates. WIT Press, Southampton: 69–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mæhlum, T., W. S. Warner, P. Stålnacke & P. D. Jenssen, 1999. Leachate treatment in extended aeration lagoons and constructed wetlands in Norway. In Mulamoottil, G., E. A. McBean & F. Revers (eds), Constructed Wetlands for the Treatment of Landfill Leachates. Lewis Publisher/CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL: 151–163.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maine, M. A., H. Hadad, G. Sánchez, S. Caffaratti & C. Bonetto, 2006. Removal efficiency in a constructed wetland for wastewater treatment from a tool factory. In Dias, V. & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 10th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. MAOTDR, Lisbon: 1753–1761.

  • Maltais-Landry, G., R. Maranger & J. Brison, 2009. Effect of artificial aeration and macrophyte species on nitrogen cycling and gas flux in constructed wetlands. Ecological Engineering 35: 221–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mander, Ü. & P. Jenssen (eds), 2003. Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment in Cold Climates. WIT Press, Southampton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mander, Ü., V. Kuusemets, M. Öövel, T. Mauring, R. Ihme & A. Pieterse, 2001. Wastewater purification efficiency in experimental treatment wetlands in Estonia. In Vymazal, J. (ed.), Transformations of Nutrients in Natural and Constructed Wetlands. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden: 201–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mander, Ü., K. Lohmus, S. Teiter, K. Nurk, T. Mauring & J. Augustin, 2005. Gaseous fluxes from subsurface flow constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment. Journal of Environmental Science and Health 40A: 1215–1226.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mantovi, P., M. Marmiroli, E. Maestri, S. Tagliavini, S. Piccinini & N. Marmiroli, 2003. Application of a horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland on treatment of dairy parlor wastewater. Bioresource Technology 88: 85–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mantovi, P., S. Piccinni, F. Lina, M. Marmiroli & N. Marmiroli, 2007. Treating wastewaters from cheese productions in H-SSF constructed wetlands. In Borin, M. & S. Bacelle (eds), Proceedings of International Conference on Multi Functions of Wetland Systems. P.A.N. s.r.l., Padova: 72–73.

  • Marschner, H. & V. Römheld, 1996. Root-induced changes in the availability of micronutrients in the rhizosphere. In Waisel, Y., A. Eshel & U. Kafkaki (eds), Plant Roots: The Hidden Half. Marcel Decker Inc, New York: 557–580.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masi, F., G. Conte, N. Martinuzzi & B. Pucci, 2002. Winery high organic content wastewaters treated by constructed wetlands in Mediterranean climate. In Proceedings of 8th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. University of Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania/IWA: 274–282.

  • Mason, C. F. & R. J. Bryant, 1975. Production, nutrient content and decomposition of Phragmites communis Trin and Typha angustifolia L. Journal of Ecology 63: 71–95.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mauring, T., 2003. The use of reed and cattail produced in constructed wetlands as building material. In Mander, Ü., C. Vohla & A. Poom (eds), Constructed and Riverine Wetlands for Optimal Control of Wastewater at Catchment Scale. Institute of Geography, University of Tartu, Tartu: 286–288.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maxwell, G., 1957. A Reed Shaken by the Wind. Longmans Green, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mbuligwe, S. E., 2004. Comparative effectiveness of engineered wetland systems in the treatment of anaerobically pre-treated domestic wastewater. Ecological Engineering 23: 269–284.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merigliano, M. F. & P. Lesica, 1998. The native status of reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea L.) in the inland Northwest, USA. Natural Areas Journal 18: 223–230.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merlin, G., J.-L. Pajean & T. Lissolo, 2002. Performances of constructed wetlands for municipal wastewater treatment in rural mountainous area. Hydrobiologia 469: 87–98.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Münch, C., P. Kuschk & I. Röske, 2005. Root stimulated nitrogen removal: only a local effect or important for water treatment. Water Science and Technology 51(9): 185–192.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, C., D. J. Cooper & P. Hawes, 2008. The application of wetland technology for copper removal from distillery wastewater: a case study. In Billore, S., P. Dass & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 11th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, Vol. 1. Institute of Environmental Management and Plant Sciences, Vikram University, Ujjain: 547–554.

  • Naylor, S., J. Brisson, M. A. Labelle, A. Drizo & Y. Comeau, 2003. Treatment of freshwater fish farm effluent using constructed wetlands: the role of plants and substrate. Water Science and Technology 48(5): 215–222.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, M., F. Cattin, M. Rajendran & L. Hafouda, 2008. Value-adding through creation of high diversity gardens and ecospaces in subsurface flow constructed wetlands: Case studies in Algeria and Australia of Wastewater Gardens® systems. In Billore, S., P. Dass & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 11th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, Vol. 1. Institute of Environmental Management and Plant Sciences, Vikram University, Ujjain: 344–356.

  • Neori, A., K. R. Reddy, H. Číšková-Končalová & M. Agami, 2000. Bioactive chemicals and biological-biochemical activities and their functions in rhizospheres of wetland plants. Botanical Reviews 66: 350–378.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nilsson, D. & P. A. Hansson, 2001. Influence of various machinery combinations, fuel proportions and storage capacities on costs for co-handling of straw and reed canary grass to district heating plants. Biomass and Bioenergy 20: 247–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nishizawa, K., I. Nakata, A. Kishida, W. A. Ayer & L. M. Browne, 1990. Some biologically active tannins of Nuphar variegatum. Phytochemistry 9: 2491–2494.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nivala, J. & D. P. L. Rousseau, 2008. Reversing clogging in subsurface-flow constructed wetlands by hydrogen peroxide treatment: two case studies. In Billore, S., P. Dass & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 11th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, Vol. 1. Institute of Environment Management and Plant Sciences, Vikram University, Ujjain: 381–392.

  • Obarska-Pempkowiak, H. & T. Ozimek, 2003. Comparison of usefulness of three emergent macrophytes for surface water protection against pollution and eutrophication: case study, Bielkowo, Poland. In Vymazal, J. (ed.), Wetlands-Nutrients, Metals and Mass Cycling. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden: 215–226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Okurut, T. O., 2001. Plant growth and nutrient uptake in a tropical constructed wetland. In Vymazal, J. (ed.), Transformations of Nutrients in Natural and Constructed Wetlands. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden: 451–462.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pandey, M. K., B. R. Kansakar, V. Tare & P. D. Jenssen, 2006. Feasibility study of municipal wastewater treatment using pilot scale constructed wetlands in Nepal. In Dias, V. & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 10th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. MAOTDR, Lisbon: 1919–1926.

  • Pantano, J., R. Bullock, D. McCarthy, T. Sharp & C. Stilwell, 2000. Using wetlands to remove metals from mining impacted groundwater. In Means, J. L. & R. E. Hinchee (eds), Wetlands & Remediation. Battelle Press, Columbus, OH: 383–390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paul, E. A. & F. E. Clark, 1996. Soil Microbiology and Biochemistry, 2nd ed. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paulo, P. L., L. Begosso, N. Pansonato, M. A. Bonez & R. R. Shrestha, 2008. Design and configuration criteria for wetland systems treating greywater. In Billore, S., P. Dass & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 11th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, Vol. 1. Institute of Environment Management and Plant Sciences, Vikram University, Ujjain: 491–498.

  • Philippi, L. S., P. H. Sezerino, B. Panceri, D. P. Olijnyk & B. Kossatz, 2006. Root zone system to treat wastewater in rural areas in south of Brazil. In Dias, V. & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 10th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. MAOTDR, Lisbon: 901–908.

  • Platzer, C., 1996. Enhanced nitrogen elimination in subsurface flow artificial wetlands – a multi stage concept. In Proceedings of 5th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, Chapter I/7. Universität für Bodenkultur, Vienna.

  • Platzer, M., V. Cáceresy, N. Fong & R. Haberl, 2002. Investigations and experiences with subsurface flow constructed wetlands in Nicaragua, Central America. In Proceedings of 8th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. University of Dar es Salaam and IWA, Arusha, Tanzania: 350–365.

  • Poggi-Varaldo, H. M., A. Gutiérez-Saravia, G. Fernández-Villagómez, P. Martínez-Pereda & N. Rinderknecht-Seijas, 2002. A full-scale system with wetlands for slaughterhouse wastewater treatment. In Nehring, K. W. & S. E. Brauning (eds), Wetlands and Remediation II. Battelle Press, Columbus, OH: 213–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prystay, W. & K. V. Lo, 1998. Assessment of constructed wetlands for the reduction of nitrogen and phosphorus from greenhouse wastewaters. In Tauk-Tornisielo, S. M. & E. Salati Filho (eds), Proceedings of 6th International Conference on Wetlands Systems for Water Pollution Control. Universidade Estadual Paulista, Sao Paulo State, Brazil/IAQW: 101–114.

  • Pucci, B., G. Conte, N. Martinuzzi, L. Giovannelli & F. Masi, 2000. Design and performance of a horizontal flow constructed wetland for treatment of dairy and agricultural wastewater in the “Chianti” countryside. In Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. Lake Buena Vista, Florida. University of Florida, Gainesville/International Water Association: 1433–1436.

  • Pullin, B. P. & D. A. Hammer, 1991. Aquatic plants improve wastewater treatment. Water and Environmental Technology 3: 36–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rice, E. E., 1984. Allelopathy, 2nd ed. Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rivas, H., 2008. Technical, social, economical and environmental aspects related to the use of constructed wetlands to preserve the water quality in a Mexican lake. In Billore, S., P. Dass & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 11th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, Vol. 1. Institute of Environment Management and Plant Sciences, Vikram University, Ujjain: 683–687.

  • Rivera, F., A. Warren, E. Ramirez, O. Decamp, P. Bonilla, E. Gallogos, A. Calderon & J. T. Sanchez, 1995. Removal of pathogens from wastewaters by the root zone method (RZM). Water Science and Technology 32: 211–218.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, H., G. Harris, M. Carville, M. Barr & S. Last, 1999. The use of an engineered reed bed system to treat leachate at Monument Hill landfill site, southern England. In Mulamoottil, G., E. A. McBean & F. Rovers (eds), Constructed Wetlands for the Treatment of Landfill Leachate. Lewis Publishers/CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL: 71–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodewald-Rudescu, L., 1974. Das Schilfrohr, Phragmites communis Trin. Die Binnengewässer, Bd. 27. Schweizerbart’scher Verlag, Stuttgart.

  • Römheld, V., 1991. The role of phytosiderophores in acquisition of iron and other micronutrients in graminaceous species: an ecological approach. Plant and Soil 130: 127–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Röthlisberger, F., 1996. Kickuth reed bed technology – the situation in Switzerland with a comparison between technical wastewater treatment and Kickuth reed bed technology. In Proceedings of 5th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. Universität für Bodenkultur, Vienna, Poster 36.

  • Rovira, A. D., 1969. Plant root exudates. Botanical Reviews 35: 35–57.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sainty, G. R. & S. W. L. Jacobs, 2003. Waterplants in Australia, 4th ed. Sainty and Associates Pty Ltd, Potts Point.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sands, Z., L. S. Gill & R. Rust, 2000. Effluent treatment reed beds: results after ten years of operation. In Means, J. F. & R. E. Hinchee (eds), Wetlands and Remediation. Battelle Press, Columbus, OH: 273–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanford, W. E., 1999. Substrate type, flow characteristics, and detention times related to landfill leachate treatment efficiency in constructed wetlands. In Mulamoottil, G., E. A. McBean & F. Rovers (eds), Constructed Wetlands for the Treatment of Landfill Leachate. Lewis Publishers/CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL: 47–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schulz, C., J. Gelbrecht & B. Rennert, 2003. Treatment of rainbow trout farm effluents in constructed wetland with emergent plants and subsurface horizontal water flow. Aquaculture 217: 207–221.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seidel, K., 1965. Phenol-Abbau in Wasser durch Scirpus lacustris L. während einer Versuchsdauer von 31 Monaten. Naturwissenschaften 52: 398–406.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seidel, K., 1976. Macrophytes and water purification. In Tourbier, J. & R. W. Pierson (eds), Biological Control of Water Pollution. Pennsylvania University Press, Philadelphia, PA: 109–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seliskar, D. M., 1988. Waterlogging stress and ethylene production in the dune slack plant, Scirpus americanus. Journal of Experimental Botany 39: 1639–1648.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Serrano, L., D. de la Vega, M. A. Diaz, I. Ruiz, R. Bondelle & M. Soto, 2008. First results of a constructed wetland treating winery and domestic wastewater. In Billore, S., P. Dass & J. Vymazal (eds), Proceedings of 11th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, Vol. 1. Institute of Environment Management and Plant Sciences, Vikram University, Ujjain: 640–646.

  • Shutes, R. B. E., D. M. Revitt, L. N. L. Scholes, M. Forshaw & B. Winter, 2001. An experimental constructed wetland system for the treatment of highway runoff in the UK. Water Science and Technology 44(11/12): 571–578.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, D. K. & S. Kumar, 2008. Nitrate reductase, arginine deaminase, urease and dehydrogenases activities in natural soil (ridge with forest) and in cotton soil after cetamiprid treatments. Chemosphere 71: 412–418.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, S., R. Haberl, O. Moog, R. R. Shrestha, P. Shrestha & R. Shrestha, 2009. Performance of an anaerobic baffled reactor and hybrid constructed wetland treating high-strength wastewater in Nepal – a model for DEWATS. Ecological Engineering 35: 654–660.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, I. D., G. N. Bis, E. R. Lemon & L. R. Rozema, 1996. A thermal analysis of a sub-surface, vertical flow constructed wetland. In Proceedings of 5th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, Chapter I/1. Universität für Bodenkultur, Vienna.

  • Soetaert, K., M. Hoffmann, P. Meire, M. Starink, D. van Oevelen, S. van Regenmortel & T. Cox, 2004. Modelling growth and carbon allocation in two reed beds (Phragmites australis) in the Scheldt estuary. Aquatic Botany 79: 211–234.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sorrell, B. K. & W. Armstrong, 1994. On the difficulties of measuring oxygen release by root systems of wetland plants. Journal of Ecology 82: 177–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soto, F., M. Garcia, E. de Luis & E. Becares, 1999. Role of Scirpus lacustris in bacterial and nutrient removal from wastewater. Water Science and Technology 40: 241–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steer, D., L. Fraser, J. Boddy & B. Seibert, 2002. Efficiency of small constructed wetlands for subsurface treatment of single-family domestic effluent. Ecological Engineering 18: 429–440.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steinmann, C. R., S. Weinhart & A. Melzer, 2003. A combined system of lagoon and constructed wetland for an effective wastewater treatment. Water Research 37: 2035–2042.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, E., 2005. Evaluation of Septic Tank and Subsurface Flow Wetland for Jamaican Public School Wastewater Treatment. MSc. Thesis, Michigan Technological University.

  • Strusevičius, Z. & S. M. Strusevičiene, 2003. Investigations of wastewater produced on cattle-breeding farms and its treatment in constructed wetlands. In Mander, Ü., C. Vohla & A. Poom (eds), Proceedings of International Conference on Constructed and Riverine Wetlands for Optimal Control of Wastewater at Catchment Scale. University of Tartu, Institute of Geography, Tartu: 317–324.

  • Studer, C. & R. Brändle, 1984. Sauerstoffkonsum und -versorgung der Rhizome von Acorus calamus L., Glyceria maxima (Hartmann) Holmberg, Menyanthes trifoliata L., Phalaris arundinacea L., Phragmites communis Trin. und Typha latifolia L. Botanica Helvetica 94: 23–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Surface, M. J., J. H. Peverly, T. S. Steenhuis & W. E. Sanford, 1993. Effect of season, substrate composition, and plant growth on landfill leachate treatment in a constructed wetland. In Moshiri, G. A. (ed.), Constructed Wetlands for Water Quality Improvement. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL: 461–472.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szczepański, A. J., 1977. Allelopathy as a means of biological control of water weeds. Aquatic Botany 3: 193–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanner, C. C., 1992. Treatment of dairy farm wastewaters in horizontal and up-flow gravel-bed constructed wetlands. In Proceedings of 3rd International Conference on Wetland Systems in Water Pollution Control. IAWQ and Australian Water and Wastewater Association, Sydney, NSW: 21.1–21.9.

  • Tanner, C. C., 1994. Treatment of agricultural wastewaters and growth of Schoenoplectus validus in constructed wetlands. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Waikato, Hamilton.

  • Tanner, C. C., 1996. Plants for constructed wetland treatment systems – a comparison of the growth and nutrient uptake of eight emergent species. Ecological Engineering 7: 59–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanner, C. C., J. S. Clayton & M. P. Upsdell, 1995. Effect of loading rate and planting on treatment of dairy farm wastewaters. I. Removal of oxygen demand, suspended solids and faecal coliforms. Water Research 29: 17–26.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Teal, J. M. & J. W. Kanwisher, 1966. Gas transport in the marsh grass Spartina alterniflora. Journal of Experimental Botany 17: 355–361.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thut, R. N., 1993. Feasibility of treating pulp mill effluent with a constructed wetland. In Moshiri, G. A. (ed.), Constructed Wetlands for Water Quality Improvement. CRC/Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL: 441–447.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tiner, R. W., 1999. Wetland Indicators. A Guide to Wetland Identification, Delineation, Classification, and Mapping. Lewis Publishers/CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Urbanc-Berčič, O., T. Bulc & D. Vrhovšek, 1998. Slovenia. In Vymazal, J., H. Brix, P. F. Cooper, M. B. Green & R. Haberl (eds), Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment in Europe. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden: 241–250.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vacca, G., H. Wand, M. Nikolausz, P. Kuschk & M. Kästner, 2005. Effect of plants and filter materials on bacteria removal in pilot-scale constructed wetlands. Water Research 39: 1361–1373.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van Oostrom, A. J. & R. N. Cooper, 1990. Meat processing effluent treatment in surface-flow and gravel-bed constructed wastewater wetlands. In Cooper, P. F. & B. C. Findlater (eds), Constructed Wetlands in Water Pollution Control. Pergamon Press, Oxford: 321–332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vincent, G., S. Dallaire & D. Lauzer, 1994. Antimicrobial properties of roots exudate of three macrophytes: Mentha aquatica L., Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. and Scirpus lacustris L. In Proceedings of 4th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. ICWS’94 Secretariat, Guangzhou: 290–296.

  • Vrhovšek, D., V. Kukanja & T. Bulc, 1996. Constructed wetland (CW) for industrial waste water treatment. Water Research 30: 2287–2292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vymazal, J., 1995. Algae and Element Cycling in Wetlands. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vymazal, J., 2001. Removal of organics in Czech constructed wetlands with horizontal sub-surface flow. In Vymazal, J. (ed.), Transformations of Nutrients in Natural and Constructed Wetlands. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden: 305–327.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vymazal, J., 2004. Removal of phosphorus in constructed wetlands with sub-surface flow in the Czech Republic. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution: Focus 4: 657–670.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vymazal, J., 2005. Removal of heavy metals in a horizontal sub-surface flow constructed wetland. Journal of Environmental Science and Health 40A: 1369–1379.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vymazal, J., 2006. The use of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment in the Czech Republic. In Burk, A. R. (ed.), Focus on Ecology Research. Nova Science Publishers Inc., New York: 175–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vymazal, J., 2009. Horizontal sub-surface flow constructed wetlands Ondřejov and Spálené Poříčí in the Czech Republic – 15 years of operation. Desalination 246: 226–237.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vymazal, J. & P. Krása, 2003. Distribution of Mn, Al, Cu and Zn in a constructed wetland receiving municipal sewage. Water Science and Technology 46(5): 299–305.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vymazal, J. & L. Kröpfelová, 2005. Growth of Phragmites australis and Phalaris arundinacea in constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment in the Czech Republic. Ecological Engineering 25: 606–621.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vymazal, J. & L. Kröpfelová, 2008a. Wastewater Treatment in Constructed Wetlands with Horizontal Sub-Surface Flow. Springer, Dordrecht.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Vymazal, J. & L. Kröpfelová, 2008b. Is concentration of dissolved oxygen a good indicator of processes in filtration bed of horizontal-flow constructed wetlands? In Vymazal, J. (ed.), Wastewater Treatment, Plant Dynamics and Management in Constructed and Natural Wetlands. Springer, Dordrecht: 311–317.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Vymazal, J., H. Brix, P. F. Cooper, M. B. Green & R. Haberl (eds), 1998. Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment in Europe. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vymazal, J., J. Dušek & J. Květ, 1999. Nutrient uptake and storage by plants in constructed wetlands with horizontal sub-surface flow: a comparative study. In Vymazal, J. (ed.), Nutrient Cycling and Retention in Natural and Constructed Wetlands. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden: 85–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vymazal, J., V. Ottová, J. Balcarová & H. Doušová, 2003. Seasonal variation in fecal indicators removal in constructed wetlands with horizontal subsurface flow. In Mander, Ü. & P. Jenssen (eds), Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater treatment in Cold Climates. WIT Press, Southampton: 237–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vymazal, J., J. Švehla, L. Kröpfelová & V. Chrastný, 2007. Trace metals in Phragmites australis and Phalaris arundinacea growing in constructed and natural wetlands. Science of the Total Environment 380: 154–162.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vymazal, J., C. B. Craft & C. J. Richardson, 2008. Plant community response to long-term N and P fertilization. In Richardson, J. (ed.), The Everglads Experiments. Lessons for Ecosystem Restoration. Ecological Studies 201, Springer , Berlin: 505–527.

  • Vymazal, J., L. Kröpfelová, J. Švehla, V. Chrastný & J. Štíchová, 2009. Trace elements in Phragmites australis growing in constructed wetlands for treatment of municipal wastewater. Ecological Engineering 35: 303–309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, S. D., 2002. On-site remediation of petroleum contact wastes using subsurface-flow wetlands. In Nehring, K. W. & S. E. Brauning (eds), Wetlands and Remediation II. Battelle Press, Columbus, OH: 125–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, S. D. & R. L. Knight, 2006. Small Scale Constructed Wetland Treatment Systems. Feasibility, Design Criteria, and O&M Requirements. Water Environment Research Foundation, Alexandria, VA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, J., X. Cai, Y. Chen, Y. Yang, M. Liang, Y. Zhang, Z. Wang, Q. Li & X. Liao, 1994. Analysis of the configuration and the treatment effect of constructed wetland wastewater treatment system for different wastewaters in South China. In Proceedings of 4th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. ICWS’94 Secretariat, Guangzhou: 114–120.

  • Watson, J. T., K. D. Choate & G. R. Steiner, 1990. Performance of constructed wetland treatment systems at Benton, Hardin, and Pembroke, Kentucky, during the early vegetation establishment phase. In Cooper, P. F. & B. C. Findlater (eds), Constructed Wetlands in Water Pollution Control. Pergamon Press, Oxford: 171–182.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, K. D., 1994. Enhancement of nitrogen removal in subsurface-flow constructed wetlands by employing a 2-stage configuration, an unsaturated zone, and recirculation. In Proceedings of 4th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. ICWS’94 Secretariat, Guangzhou: 219–229.

  • Williams, J. B., D. Zambrano, M. G. Ford, E. May & J. E. Butler, 1999. Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment in Colombia. Water Science and Technology 40(3): 217–223.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Winter, M. & R. Kickuth, 1989. Elimination of sulphur compounds from wastewater by the root zone process I. Performance of a large-scale purification plant at a textile finishing industry. Water Research 23: 535–546.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wojciechowska, E. & H. Obarska-Pempkowiak, 2008. Performance of reed beds supplied with municipal landfill leachate. In Vymazal, J. (ed.), Wastewater Treatment, Plant Dynamics and Management in Constructed and Natural Wetlands. Springer, Dordrecht: 251–265.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, A. & L. C. Hensman, 1989. Research to develop engineering guidelines for implementation of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment in Southern Africa. In Hammer, D. A. (ed.), Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI: 581–589.

    Google Scholar 

  • Worrall, P., D. M. Revitt, G. Prickett & D. Brewer, 2002. Constructed wetlands for airport runoff–the London Heathrow experience. In Nehring, K. W. & S. E. Brauning (eds), Wetlands and Remediation II. Battelle Press, Columbus, OH: 177–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang, L. & C. C. Hu, 2005. Treatments of oil-refinery and steel-mill wastewaters by mesocosm constructed wetland systems. Water Science and Technology 51(9): 157–164.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, Y., X. Zhencheng, H. Kangping, W. Junsan & W. Guizhi, 1994. Removal efficiency of the constructed wetland wastewater treatment system at Bainikeng, Shenzhen. In Proceedings of 4th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. ICWS’94 Secretariat, Guangzhou: 94–103.

  • Zachritz II, W. H. & R. B. Jacquez, 1993. Treating intensive aquaculture recycled water with a constructed wetlands filter system. In Moshiri, G. A. (ed.), Constructed Wetlands for Water Quality Improvement. CRC Press/Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL: 609–614.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, Q., R. Zhang, Y. Shi, Y. Li, J. Paing & B. Picot, 2004. Nitrogen and phosphorus removal in subsurface constructed wetland treating agriculture stormwater runoff. In Proceedings of 9th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. ASTEE 2004 and Cemagref, Lyon: 75–82.

  • Zupančič Justin, M., M. Zupančič, T. Griessler Bulc, A. Zrimec, V. Simon Šelih, P. Bukovec & D. Vrhovšek, 2007. Combined purification and reuse of landfill leachate by constructed wetland and irrigation of grass and willows. In Borin, M. & S. Bacelle (eds), Proceedings of International Conference on Multi Functions of Wetland Systems. P.A.N. s.r.l., Padova: 118–119.

  • Zupančič Justin, M., D. Vrhovšek, A. Stuhlbacher & T. G. Bulc, 2009. Treatment of wastewater in hybrid constructed wetland from the production of vinegar and packaging of detergents. Desalination 246: 100–109.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zurita, F., J. De Anda & M. A. Belmont, 2009. Treatment of domestic wastewater and production of commercial flowers in vertical and horizontal subsurface-flow constructed wetlands. Ecological Engineering 35: 861–869.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Züst, B. & A. Schönborn, 2003. Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment in cold climates: planted soil filter Schattweid – 13 years’ experience. In Mander, Ü. & P. Jenssen (eds), Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment in Cold Climates. WIT Press, Southampton: 53–68.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The study was supported by grants No. 206/06/0058 “Monitoring of Heavy Metals and Selected Risk Elements during Wastewater Treatment in Constructed Wetlands” from the Czech Science Foundation and No. 2B06023 “Development of Mass and Energy Flows Evaluation in Selected Ecosystems” from the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Landscape Ecology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic

    Jan Vymazal

  2. ENKI, o.p.s, Třeboň, Czech Republic

    Jan Vymazal

Authors
  1. Jan Vymazal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jan Vymazal.

Additional information

Guest editors: Dominik Zak, Robert McInnes, Jörg Gelbrecht / Restoration, biogeochemistry and ecological services of wetlands

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Vymazal, J. Plants used in constructed wetlands with horizontal subsurface flow: a review. Hydrobiologia 674, 133–156 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-011-0738-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-011-0738-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation