Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Economic and environmental life cycle assessment of alternative mass timber walls to evaluate circular economy in building: MCDM method

  • Published:
Environment, Development and Sustainability Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The construction industry is one of the largest consumers of energy and materials, which leads to it being one of the highest sources of environmental emissions. Quantifying the impact of building materials is critical if strategies for mitigating environmental deterioration are to be developed. The lifecycle assessment (LCA) consequential methodology has been applied to evaluate different methods of constructing residential double-story buildings. The ReCiPe methodology has been used for life cycle inventory. Three different forms of mass timber construction have been considered including cross-laminated timber (CLT), nail-laminated timber (NLT), and dowel-laminated timber (DLT). These have been assessed as load-bearing panels or wood frame construction. We evaluated the global warming potential (GWP), embodied energy, and cost to identify the building type with the lowest impacts. The results revealed that total CO2 emissions for mass timbers for the construction stage are 130 CO2/M2, 118 CO2/M2, and 132 CO2/M2 of the panel for CLT, DLT, and NLT, respectively. The embodied energy emission is 1921 MJ/M2, 1902 MJ/M2, and 2130 MJ/M2 related to the CLT, DLT, and NLT, respectively, for this stage. The results also indicated that the carbon emission of DLT is lowest compared to the other two alternatives in the manufacturing and construction stages. However, when the entire life cycle is considered, NLT is the most favorable material. However, based on the life cycle cost (LCC), DLT has a lower cost. Finally, multiple-criteria decision-making (MCDM) was used to normalize the results and compare the alternatives. This showed DLT to be the best alternative, followed by CLT and NLT. In conclusion, the selection of building materials needs to prioritize regulations to reduce environmental and economic impacts.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

References

  • Abergel, T.; Dean, B.; Dulac, J. (2017) Towards a zero-emission, efficient, and resilient buildings and construction sector: global status report 2017; UN Environment and international energy agency: Paris, France

  • Asdrubali, F., Ferracuti, B., Lombardi, L., Guattari, C., Evangelisti, L., & Grazieschi, G. (2017). A review of structural, thermo-physical, acoustical, and environmental properties of wooden materials for building applications. Building and Environment, 114, 307–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2016.12.033

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balasbaneh, A. T., & Bin Marsono, A. K. (2017). Strategies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from residential sector by proposing new building structures in hot and humid climatic conditions. Building and Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.08.025

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balasbaneh, A. T., Bin Marsono, A. K., & KasraKermanshahi, E. (2018). Balancing of life cycle carbon and cost appraisal on alternative wall and roof design verification for residential building. Construction Innovation, 18(3), 274–300. https://doi.org/10.1108/CI-03-2017-0024

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balasbaneh, A. T., & Sher, W. (2021a). Comparative sustainability evaluation of two engineered wood-based construction materials: Life cycle analysis of CLT versus GLT. Building and Environment, 204, 108112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108112

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balasbaneh, A. T., & Sher, W. (2021b). Life cycle sustainability assessment analysis of different concrete construction techniques for residential building in Malaysia. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-021-01938-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cadorel, X., & Crawford, R. (2018). Life cycle analysis of cross laminated timber in buildings: a review. In Engaging Architectural Science: Meeting the Challenges of Higher Density: 52nd International Conference of the Architectural Science Association, (pp. 107–114).

  • Cellura, M., Guarino, F., Longo, S., & Mistretta, M. (2014). Energy lifecycle approach in Net zero energy buildings nce: Operation and embodied energy of an Italian case study. Energy and Buildings, 72, 371–381.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cesar, M., Pereira, D. M., Arthur, L., Sohier, P., & Descamps, T. (2021). Doweled cross laminated timber: Experimental and analytical study. Construction and Building Materials, 273, 121820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121820

  • Chau, C. K., Leung, T. M., & Ng, W. Y. (2015). A review on life cycle assessment, life cycle energy assessment and life cycle carbon emissions assessment on buildings. Applied Energy, 143(1), 395–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.023

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chaudhary, A. (2015). Life cycle assessment of adhesives used in wood constructions Life cycle assessment ( LCA ) of adhesives used in wood constructions. June.

  • Chen, C. X., Pierobon, F., & Ganguly, I. (2019). Life cycle assessment (LCA) of cross-laminated timber (CLT) produced in Western Washington: The role of logistics and wood species mix. Sustainability (switzerland), 11(5), 1278. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11051278

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Z., Gu, H., Bergman, R. D., & Liang, S. (2020). Comparative life-cycle assessment of a high-rise mass timber building with an equivalent reinforced concrete alternative using the athena impact estimator for buildings. Sustainability (switzerland), 12(11), 4708. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12114708

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cherry, R., Manalo, A., Karunasena, W., & Stringer, G. (2019). Out-of-grade sawn pine : A state-of-the-art review on challenges and new opportunities in cross laminated timber ( CLT ). Construction and Building Materials, 211, 858–868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.03.293

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dauksta, D., 2014. Brettstapel Production in Other Parts of the World; Adapting Techniques for Utilisation of Homegrown Timbers in Britain. Wales: Wales Forest Business Partnership. Available at: http://woodknowledge.wales/wp-content/uplo ads/2017/02/Brettstapel-Sept-2014.pdf, 28th September 2020.

  • de PereiraMoraes, M. C., Pascal Sohier, L. A., Descamps, T., & Junior, C. C. (2021). Doweled cross laminated timber: Experimental and analytical study. Construction and Building Materials, 273, 121820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121820

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Demertzi, M., Silvestre, J., Garrido, M., Correia, J. R., Durão, V., & Proença, M. (2020). Life cycle assessment of alternative building floor rehabilitation systems. Structures, 26, 237–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2020.03.060

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Derikvand, M., Kotlarewski, N., Lee, M., Jiao, H., Chan, A., & Nolan, G. (2019). Short-term and long-term bending properties of nail-laminated timber constructed of fast-grown plantation eucalypt. Construction and Building Materials, 211, 952–964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.03.305

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • EN 15978 (2011b) Sustainability of construction works—assessment of environmental performance of buildings—calculation method. European Committee for Standardization

  • EN 15978, (2011a). Sustainability of construction works - assessment of environmental performance of buildings. In: Calculation Method European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, Belgium.

  • EU (2010) DIRECTIVE 2010/31/EU on the energy performance of buildings, Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32010L0031&from=EN [Accessed August 4, 2020].

  • Ghose, A., McLaren, S. J., Dowdell, D., & Phipps, R. (2017). Environmental assessment of deep energy refurbishment for energy efficiency-case study of an office building in New Zealand. Building and Environment, 117, 274–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.03.012

  • Goedkoop, M., Heijungs, R., Huijbregts, M. A. J., De Schryver, A., Struijs, J., & van Zelm, R. (2009). ReCiPe 2008: A life cycle impact assessment method which comprises harmonised category indicators at the midpoint and endpoint levels. First edition. Report i: Characterization. The Netherlands: Ruimte en Milieu, Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieubeheer.

  • Häfliger, I. F., John, V., Passer, A., Lasvaux, S., Hoxha, E., Saade, M. R. M., & Habert, G. (2017). Buildings environmental impacts’ sensitivity related to LCA modelling choices of construction materials. Journal of Cleaner Production, 156, 805–816. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.04.052

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hafner, A., & Schäfer, S. (2018). Environmental aspects of material efficiency versus carbon storage in timber buildings. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products, 76(3), 1045–1059. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-017-1273-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, J., Foster, S., Bridgestock, M., (2012) Brettstapel–what are the benefits ? Available at: http://www.brettstapel.org/Brettstapel/Why.html. January 4th 2020.

  • Himes, A., & Busby, G. (2020). Wood buildings as a climate solution. Developments in the Built Environment, 4(October), 100030. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dibe.2020.100030

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hischier, R., Weidema, B., Althaus, H.-J., Bauer, C., Doka, G., Dones, R., Frischknecht, R., Hellweg, S., Humbert, S., Jungbluth, N., Köllner, T., Loerincik, Y., Margni, M., & Nemecek, T. (2010). Implementation of Life Cycle Impact Assessment Methods Data v2.2. Ecoinvent Report, 3, 176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hollander A., Huijbregts M.A.J, Steinmann Z.J.N, Elshout P.M.F, Stam G., Verones F., Vieira M.D.M, Zijp RIVM M, van Zelm RIVM R. (2016) ReCiPe 2016 v1.1, A harmonized life cycle impact assessment method at midpoint and endpoint level Report I: Characterization

  • Hollberg, A. (2016). LCA in architectural design—a parametric approach. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-016-1065-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horváth, S. E., & Szalay, Z. (2012). Decision-making case study for retrofit of high-rise concrete buildings based on life cycle assessment scenarios. In A. Ventura, C. De la Roche. (Eds.), International symposium on life cycle assessment and Construction: Civil Engineering and Buildings, RILEMPublications SARL, Nantes (pp. 116–124).

  • Hunkeler, D., Lichtenvort, K., Rebitzer, G. (2008). Environmental life cycle costing. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420054736

  • International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Environmental Management. Life Cycle Assessment. Principle and framework, 1st ed.; ISO 14040; ISO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2006.

  • International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Environmental Management. Life Cycle Assessment. Requirements and Guidelines, 1st ed.; ISO 14044; ISO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2006.

  • Jayalath, A., Navaratnam, S., Ngo, T., Mendis, P., Hewson, N., & Aye, L. (2020). Life cycle performance of Cross Laminated Timber mid-rise residential buildings in Australia. Energy and Buildings, 223, 110091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2020.110091

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kesik, T., & Martin, R. (2021). Mass Timber Building Science Primer.

  • Kiss, B., & Szalay, Z. (2020). Modular approach to multi-objective environmental optimization of buildings. Automation in Construction, 111, 103044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2019.103044

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Konnerth, J., Kluge, M., Schweizer, G., Miljković, M., & Gindl-Altmutter, W. (2016). Survey of selected adhesive bonding properties of nine European softwood and hardwood species. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products, 74(6), 809–819. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-016-1087-1

  • Kosny, J., Asiz, A., Smith, I., Shrestha, S., & Fallahi, A. (2014). A review of high R-value wood framed and composite wood wall technologies using advanced insulation techniques. Energy and Buildings, 72, 441–456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.01.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kržan, M., & Azinović, B. (2021). Cyclic response of insulated steel angle brackets used for cross-laminated timber connections. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products, 0123456789. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-020-01643-5

  • Lechón, Y., de Rúa la, C., & Lechón, J. I. (2021). Environmental footprint and life cycle costing of a family house built on CLT structure Analysis of hotspots and improvement measures. Journal of Building Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102239

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liang, S., & Gu, H. (2021). Environmental Life-Cycle Assessment and Life-Cycle Cost Analysis of a High-Rise Mass Timber Building : A Case Study in Pacific Northwestern United States.

  • Liu, Y., Guo, H., Sun, C., & Chang, W. S. (2016). Assessing cross laminated timber (CLT) as an alternative material for mid-rise residential buildings in cold regions in China-A life-cycle assessment approach. Sustainability (switzerland). https://doi.org/10.3390/su8101047

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mahn, J., Quirt, D., Hoeller, C., & Mueller-trapet, M. (2018). Addendum to RR-335 : Sound Transmission through Nail-Laminated Timber ( NLT ) Assemblies.

  • Nairn, J. A. (2017). Cross laminated timber properties including effects of non-glued edges and additional cracks. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products, 75(6), 973–983. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-017-1202-y

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nässén, J., Hedenus, F., Karlsson, S., & Holmberg, J. (2012). Concrete vs. wood in buildings e An energy system approach. Building and Environment, 51, 361–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.11.011

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Niederwestberg, J., Zhou, J., & Chui, Y. (2018). Mechanical Properties of Innovative. Multi-Layer Composite Laminated Panels. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings8100142

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nunes, G., Daniel, J., Moura, D. M., Güths, S., Atem, C., & Giglio, T. (2020). Thermo-energetic performance of wooden dwellings : Benefits of cross-laminated timber in Brazilian climates. Journal of Building Engineering, 32, 101468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101468

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ogunmakinde, O. E., Sher, W., & Egbelakin, T. (2021). Circular economy pillars: A semi-systematic review. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, 23(3), 899–914. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-020-02012-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oliver, C. D., Nassar, N. T., Lippke, B. R., & McCarter, J. B. (2014). Carbon, Fossil Fuel, and Biodiversity Mitigation With Wood and Forests. Journal of Sustainable Forestry, 33(3), 248–275. https://doi.org/10.1080/10549811.2013.839386

  • Peñaloza, D., Erlandsson, M., & Falk, A. (2016). Exploring the climate impact effects of increased use of bio-based materials in buildings. Construction and Building Materials, 125, 219–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.08.041

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pereira, M. C. M., & Calil, C. (2018). Analysis of the stiffness of dlt panels made with lamellas of Pinus taeda and dowels of Peltogyne spp., Leguminosae. In WCTE 2018 - World Conference on Timber Engineering (Issue October) https://doi.org/10.22533/at.ed.642182910

  • Petrovic, B., Myhren, J. A., Zhang, X., Wallhagen, M., & Eriksson, O. (2019). Life cycle assessment of a wooden single-family house in Sweden. Applied Energy, 251, 113253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.05.056

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pierobon, F., Huang, M., Simonen, K., & Ganguly, I. (2019). Environmental benefits of using hybrid CLT structure in midrise non-residential construction: An LCA based comparative case study in the U.S. Pacific Northwest. Journal of Building Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100862

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pomponi, F., & Moncaster, A. (2017). Circular economy for the built environment: A research framework. Journal of Cleaner Production, 143, 710–718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.12.055

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rebecca Holt, Tanya Luthi, C. D. (2018). Nail-Laminated Timber Design & Constr uction Guide I. 142.

  • Saaty, T. L. (1996). Decision Making with Dependence and Feedback. RWS Publications, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheepens, A. E., Vogtländer, J. G., & Brezet, J. C. (2016). Two life cycle assessment (LCA) based methods to analyse and design complex (regional) circular economy systems. Case: Making water tourism more sustainable. Journal of Cleaner Production, 114, 257–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.05.075

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skullestad, J. L., Bohne, R. A., & Lohne, J. (2016). High-rise Timber Buildings as a Climate Change Mitigation Measure - A Comparative LCA of Structural System Alternatives. Energy Procedia, 96(1876), 112–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2016.09.112

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, R. E., Griffin, G., Rice, T., & Hagehofer-Daniell, B. (2018). Mass timber: Evaluating construction performance. Architectural Engineering and Design Management, 14(1–2), 127–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/17452007.2016.1273089

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sorathiya, R., Student, M., Ubc, S., Sustainability, U. B. C., Prepared, I., Foofat, S., Green, S., Planner, B., Group, S., & August, V. (2019). Literature Review of Cost Information on Mid-Rise Mass-Timber Building Projects.

  • Sotayo, A., Bradley, D., Bather, M., Sareh, P., Oudjene, M., El-Houjeyri, I., Harte, A. M., Mehra, S., O’Ceallaigh, C., Haller, P., Namari, S., Makradi, A., Belouettar, S., Bouhala, L., Deneufbourg, F., & Guan, Z. (2020). Review of state of the art of dowel laminated timber members and densified wood materials as sustainable engineered wood products for construction and building applications. Developments in the Built Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dibe.2019.100004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sutton, A., Black, D., & Walker, P. (2011). INFORMATION PAPER CROSS-LAMINATED TIMBER An introduction to low-impact building materials.

  • Takano, A., Hafner, A., Linkosalmi, L., Ott, S., Hughes, M., & Winter, S. (2015). Life cycle assessment of wood construction according to the normative standards. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products, 73(3), 299–312. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-015-0890-4

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Teng, Y., Li, K., Pan, W., & Ng, T. (2018). Reducing building life cycle carbon emissions through prefabrication: evidence from and gaps in empirical studies. Building and Environment, 132, 125–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2018.01.026

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Timber, D. L., & Canada, B. C. Environmental Product D eclaration DowelLam (2020).

  • Upton, B., Miner, R., Spinney, M., & Heath, L. S. (2008). The greenhouse gas and energy impacts of using wood instead of alternatives in residential construction in the United States. Biomass and Bioenergy, 32(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2007.07.001

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walbech, M., Krogh, P., Eva, M., & Lading, T. (2021). Comparative life cycle assessment of four buildings in Greenland. Building and Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeitz, A., Griffin, C. T., & Dusicka, P. (2019). Comparing the embodied carbon and energy of a mass timber structure system to typical steel and concrete alternatives for parking garages. Energy and Buildings, 199, 126–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.06.047

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, C., Lee, G., & Lam, F. (2018). Study of Massive Timber Walls Based on NLT and Post Laminated LVL by, 604, 1–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, X., & Wang, F. (2016). Hybrid input-output analysis for life-cycle energy consumption and carbon emissions of China’s building sector. Building and Environment, 104, 188–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2016.05.018

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 86400, Parit Raja, Johor, Malaysia

    Ali Tighnavard Balasbaneh

  2. School of Architecture and Built Environment, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, The University of Newcastle (UON), University Drive, Callaghan, NSW, 2308, Australia

    Willy Sher

Authors
  1. Ali Tighnavard Balasbaneh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Willy Sher
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors contributed to the study conception and design. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ali Tighnavard Balasbaneh.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Ethics approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendices

Appendix 1

GWP

 

Unit

CLT

DLT

NLT

Manufacturing

KgCO2

45408

41700

46210

On site

4.51E + 03

4.51E + 03

4.51E + 03

Cladding

1.59E + 03

1.59E + 03

1.59E + 03

Insulation

1.13E + 03

1.13E + 03

1.13E + 03

Plasterboard wall

253

253

253

Steel ledgers for floors

442

442

442

Steel drag strap connections

6.5

6.5

6.5

Threaded screws

1.62E + 03

1.62E + 03

1.62E + 03

Transportation

353.5

298.6

320

Maintenance

2200

2200

2200

End of life

850

850

1200

Benefit and loads

− 22000

− 22000

− 28000

Appendix 2

3.1 Embodied energy

 

Unit

CLT

DLT

NLT

Manufacturing

MJ

719122

712590

793090

Construction

4100

4100

4100

Transportation

17500

17500

17500

Maintenance

12200

12200

12200

End of life

6400

6400

6400

Benefit and loads

− 287649

− 285036

− 293737

Appendix 3

Criteria

GWP

HTP

AP

TE

FD

Embodied energy

Cost

CLT

0.6258

0.6157

0.5625

0.5839

0.5286

0.5512

0.5951

DLT

0.5611

0.5804

0.5043

0.5079

0.5007

0.5466

0.5583

NLT

0.5418

0.5330

0.6552

0.6333

0.6855

0.6305

0.5781

Appendix 4

Same weighting.

Criteria

GWP

HTP

AP

TE

FD

Embodied energy

Cost

Si + 

Si-

Pi

Rank

CLT

0.0894

0.0880

0.0804

0.0834

0.0755

0.0787

0.0850

0.0227

0.0293

0.5633

2

DLT

0.0802

0.0829

0.0720

0.0726

0.0715

0.0781

0.0798

0.0073

0.0420

0.8519

1

NLT

0.0774

0.0761

0.0936

0.0905

0.0979

0.0901

0.0826

0.0404

0.0170

0.2962

3

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Balasbaneh, A.T., Sher, W. Economic and environmental life cycle assessment of alternative mass timber walls to evaluate circular economy in building: MCDM method. Environ Dev Sustain 26, 239–268 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02707-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02707-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation