Abstract
This study examined the extent to which positive and negative parenting relates to conduct problems (CP) and callous-unemotional (CU) traits among 172 adolescents (72 % males; Mage = 16.91 years, SD = .67) with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and whether CU traits moderate the link between parenting and CP. Mothers reported on their adolescents’ CP, CU traits, and their own parenting practices. Maternal behaviors were observed during a problem-solving communication task. Parents who engaged in more positive parenting (self-reported and observed) reported their adolescents as having lower levels of CU traits. No effect was found for negative parenting. Moderation analyses indicated that lower levels of positive maternal behavior was only associated with higher CP in the presence of higher levels of CU traits. Negative parenting was positively related to CP regardless of CU traits. Positive parenting, irrespective of measurement approach, uniquely relates to adolescents’ CU traits while both positive and negative parenting relate to CP.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Perou R, Bitsko RH, Blumberg SJ, Pastor P, Ghandour RM, Gfroerer JC et al (2013) Mental health surveillance among children—United States, 2005–2011. MMWR Surveill Summ 62(Suppl 2):1–35
Polanczyk GV, Willcutt EG, Salum GA, Kieling C, Rohde LA (2014) ADHD prevalence estimates across three decades: an updated systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Int J Epidemiol 43(2):434–442
White JL, Moffitt TE, Earls F, Robins L, Silva PA (1990) How early can we tell? Predictors of childhood conduct disorder and adolescent delinquency. Criminology 28(4):507–535
Broidy LM, Nagin DS, Tremblay RE, Bates JE, Brame B, Dodge KA et al (2003) Developmental trajectories of childhood disruptive behaviors and adolescent delinquency: a six-site, cross-national study. Dev Psychol 39(2):222–245
Moffitt TE, Caspi A, Harrington H, Milne BJ (2002) Males on the life-course-persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways: follow-up at age 26 years. Dev Psychopathol 14(01):179–207
Fergusson DM, John Horwood L, Ridder EM (2005) Show me the child at seven: the consequences of conduct problems in childhood for psychosocial functioning in adulthood. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 46(8):837–849
Fazel S, Doll H, Långström N (2008) Mental disorders among adolescents in juvenile detention and correctional facilities: a systematic review and metaregression analysis of 25 surveys. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 47(9):1010–1019
Frick PJ, Ray JV, Thornton LC, Kahn RE (2014) Can callous-unemotional traits enhance the understanding, diagnosis, and treatment of serious conduct problems in children and adolescents? A comprehensive review. Psychol Bull 140(1):1–57
Patrick CJ (2010) Conceptualizing the psychopathic personality: disinhibited, bold,… or just plain mean? In: Slekin R, Lynam D (eds) Handbook of child and adolescent psychopathy. Guilford Press, New York, pp 15–48
Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Morgan J, Rutter M, Taylor A, Arseneault L et al (2004) Maternal expressed emotion predicts children’s antisocial behavior problems: using monozygotic-twin differences to identify environmental effects on behavioral development. Dev Psychol 40(2):149–161
Patterson GR (1982) Coercive family process. Castalia Publishing Company, Chicago
Loeber R, Farrington DP, Stouthamer-Loeber M, Van Kammen WB (1998) Antisocial behavior and mental health problems: explanatory factors in childhood and adolescence. Psychology Press, London
Stormshak EA, Bierman KL, McMahon RJ, Lengua LJ (2000) Parenting practices and child disruptive behavior problems in early elementary school. J Clin Child Psychol 29(1):17–29
Carlo G, Mestre MV, Samper P, Tur A, Armenta BE (2011) The longitudinal relations among dimensions of parenting styles, sympathy, prosocial moral reasoning, and prosocial behaviors. Int J Behav Dev 35(2):116–124
Kochanska G (2002) Mutually responsive orientation between mothers and their young children: a context for the early development of conscience. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 11(6):191–195
Zhou Q, Eisenberg N, Losoya SH, Fabes RA, Reiser M, Guthrie IK et al (2002) The relations of parental warmth and positive expressiveness to children’s empathy-related responding and social functioning: a longitudinal study. Child Dev 73(3):893–915
Kochanska G (1997) Multiple pathways to conscience for children with different temperaments: from toddlerhood to age 5. Dev Psychol 33(2):228
Berkowitz MW, Grych JH (1998) Fostering goodness: teaching parents to facilitate children’s moral development. J Moral Educ 27(3):371–391
Robinson JL (1994) Patterns of development in early empathic behavior: environmental and child constitutional influences. Soc Dev 3(2):125–146
Van IJzendoorn MH (1997) Attachment, emergent morality, and aggression: toward a developmental socioemotional model of antisocial behaviour. Int J Behav Dev 21(4):703–728
Kestenbaum R, Farber EA, Sroufe LA (1989) Individual differences in empathy among preschoolers: relation to attachment history. New Dir Child Adolesc Dev 44:51–64
Mark IL, IJzendoorn MHV, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ (2002) Development of empathy in girls during the second year of life: associations with parenting, attachment, and temperament. Soc Dev 11(4):451–468
Kiang L, Moreno AJ, Robinson JL (2004) Maternal preconceptions about parenting predict child temperament, maternal sensitivity, and children’s empathy. Dev Psychol 40:1081
Kochanska G, Forman DR, Aksan N, Dunbar SB (2005) Pathways to conscience: early mother—child mutually responsive orientation and children’s moral emotion, conduct, and cognition. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 46(1):19–34
Pardini DA, Lochman JE, Powell N (2007) The development of callous-unemotional traits and antisocial behavior in children: are there shared and/or unique predictors? J Clin Child Adolesc 36(3):319–333
Cornell AH, Frick PJ (2007) The moderating effects of parenting styles in the association between behavioral inhibition and parent-reported guilt and empathy in preschool children. J Clin Child Adolesc 36(3):305–318
McDonald R, Dodson MC, Rosenfield D, Jouriles EN (2011) Effects of a parenting intervention on features of psychopathy in children. J Abnorm Child Psychol 39(7):1013–1023
Waller R, Gardner F, Hyde LW (2013) What are the associations between parenting, callous–unemotional traits, and antisocial behavior in youth? A systematic review of evidence. Clin Psychol Rev 33(4):593–608
Barker ED, Oliver BR, Viding E, Salekin RT, Maughan B (2011) The impact of prenatal maternal risk, fearless temperament and early parenting on adolescent callous-unemotional traits: a 14-year longitudinal investigation. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 52(8):878–888
Waller R, Gardner F, Hyde LW, Shaw DS, Dishion TJ, Wilson MN (2012) Do harsh and positive parenting predict parent reports of deceitful-callous behavior in early childhood? J Child Psychol Psychiatry 53(9):946–953
Viding E, Fontaine NM, Oliver BR, Plomin R (2009) Negative parental discipline, conduct problems and callous—unemotional traits: monozygotic twin differences study. Br J Psychiatry 195(5):414–419
Pardini DA, Loeber R (2008) Interpersonal callousness trajectories across adolescence early social influences and adult outcomes. Crim Justice Behav 35(2):173–196
Hawes DJ, Dadds MR, Frost AD, Hasking PA (2011) Do childhood callous-unemotional traits drive change in parenting practices? J Clin Child Adoles Psychol 40(4):507–518
Frick PJ, Kimonis ER, Dandreaux DM, Farell JM (2003) The 4 year stability of psychopathic traits in non-referred youth. Behav Sci Law 21(6):713–736
Blair R, Colledge E, Mitchell D (2001) Somatic markers and response reversal: is there orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in boys with psychopathic tendencies? J Abnorm Child Psychol 29(6):499–511
Marsh AA, Finger EC, Mitchell DG, Reid ME, Sims C, Kosson DS et al (2008) Reduced amygdala response to fearful expressions in children and adolescents with callous-unemotional traits and disruptive behavior disorders. Am J Psychiatry 165(6):712–720
Pasalich DS, Dadds MR, Hawes DJ, Brennan J (2011) Do callous-unemotional traits moderate the relative importance of parental coercion versus warmth in child conduct problems? An observational study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 52(12):1308–1315
Dishion TJ, McMahon RJ (1998) Parental monitoring and the prevention of child and adolescent problem behavior: a conceptual and empirical formulation. Clin Child Fam Psych 1(1):61–75
Steinberg L (1987) Impact of puberty on family relations: effects of pubertal status and pubertal timing. Dev Psychol 23(3):451
Steinberg L, Silk JS (2002) Parenting adolescents. Handb Parent 1:103–133
Moffitt TE, Caspi A, Dickson N, Silva P, Stanton W (1996) Childhood-onset versus adolescent-onset antisocial conduct problems in males: natural history from ages 3 to 18 years. Dev Psychopathol 8(02):399–424
Costello EJ, Mustillo S, Erkanli A, Keeler G, Angold A (2003) Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Arch Gen Psychiat 60(8):837–844
Baumrind D (1991) The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. J Early Adolesc 11(1):56–95
Eyberg SM, Nelson MM, Boggs SR (2008) Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents with disruptive behavior. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 37(1):215–237
Fabiano GA, Hulme K, Linke S, Nelson-Tuttle C, Pariseau M, Gangloff B et al (2011) The Supporting a Teen’s Effective Entry to the Roadway (STEER) program: feasibility and preliminary support for a psychosocial intervention for teenage drivers with ADHD. Cogn Behav Pract 18(2):267–280
Hartung CM, McCarthy DM, Milich R, Martin CA (2005) Parent: adolescent agreement on disruptive behavior symptoms—a multitrait-multimethod model. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 27(3):159–168
Pelham WE, Gnagy EM, Greenslade KE, Milich R (1992) Teacher ratings of DSM-III-R symptoms for the disruptive behavior disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 31(2):210–218
Fabiano PWE Jr, Waschbusch DA, Gnagy EM, Lahey BB, Chronis AM et al (2006) A practical measure of impairment: psychometric properties of the impairment rating scale in samples of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and two school-based samples. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 35(3):369–385
Robin A, Foster S (1989) Negotiating parent-adolescent conflict: a behavioral approach. Guilford Press, New York
Achenbach TM (1991) Manual for the child behavior checklist/4-18 and 1991 profile. Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington
Frick PJ (2004) The inventory of callous-unemotional traits. Unpublished rating scale
Kimonis ER, Fanti KA, Singh JP (2014) Establishing cut-off scores for the parent-reported inventory of callous-unemotional traits. Arch Forensic Psychol 1(1):27–48
Fink BC, Tant AS, Tremba K, Kiehl KA (2012) Assessment of psychopathic traits in an incarcerated adolescent sample: a methodological comparison. J Abnorm Child Psychol 40(6):971–986
White SF, Cruise KR, Frick PJ (2009) Differential correlates to self-report and parent-report of callous–unemotional traits in a sample of juvenile sexual offenders. Behav Sci Law 27(6):910–928
Wallace GL, White SF, Robustelli B, Sinclair S, Hwang S, Martin A et al (2014) Cortical and subcortical abnormalities in youths with conduct disorder and elevated callous-unemotional traits. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 53(4):456–465
Docherty M, Boxer P, Huesmann LR, O’Brien M, Bushman BJ (2015) Exploring primary and secondary variants of psychopathy in adolescents in detention and in the community. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. doi:10.1080/15374416.2014.979934
Schwenck C, Gensthaler A, Romanos M, Freitag CM, Schneider W, Taurines R (2014) Emotion recognition in girls with conduct problems. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 23(1):13–22
Shelton KK, Frick PJ, Wootton J (1996) Assessment of parenting practices in families of elementary school-age children. J Clin Child Psychol 25(3):317–329
Frick PJ, Christian RE, Wootton JM (1999) Age trends in the association between parenting practices and conduct problems. Behav Modif 23(1):106–128
Zlomke KR, Lamport D, Bauman S, Garland B, Talbot B (2014) Parenting adolescents: examining the factor structure of the Alabama parenting questionnaire for adolescents. J Child Fam Stud 23(8):1484–1490
Arnold DS, O’Leary SG, Wolff LS, Acker MM (1993) The Parenting Scale: a measure of dysfunctional parenting in discipline situations. Psychol Assess 5(2):137
Prinz RJ, Kent RN (1978) Recording parent-adolescent interactions without the use of frequency or interval-by-interval coding. Behav Ther 9(4):602–604
Robin AL, Koepke T (1990) Behavioral assessment and treatment of parent-adolescent conflict. Prog Behav Modif 25:178–215
Pelham WE, Meichenbaum DL, Smith BH, Sibley MH, Gnagy EM, Bukstein O (2013) Acute effects of MPH on the parent–teen interactions of adolescents With ADHD. J Atten Disord. doi:10.1177/1087054713480833
Aiken LS, West SG (1991) Multiple regression: testing and interpreting interactions. Sage, Thousand Oaks
Hayes AF, Matthes J (2009) Computational procedures for probing interactions in OLS and logistic regression: SPSS and SAS implementations. Behav Res Methods 41(3):924–936
Essau CA, Sasagawa S, Frick PJ (2006) Callous-unemotional traits in a community sample of adolescents. Assessment 13(4):454–469
Stickle TR, Kirkpatrick NM, Brush LN (2009) Callous-unemotional traits and social information processing: multiple risk-factor models for understanding aggressive behavior in antisocial youth. Law Hum Behav 33(6):515
Stickle TR, Marini VA, Thomas JN (2012) Gender differences in psychopathic traits, types, and correlates of aggression among adjudicated youth. J Abnorm Child Psychol 40(4):513–525
Kroneman LM, Hipwell AE, Loeber R, Koot HM, Pardini DA (2011) Contextual risk factors as predictors of disruptive behavior disorder trajectories in girls: the moderating effect of callous-unemotional features. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 52(2):167–175
Falk AE, Lee SS (2012) Parenting behavior and conduct problems in children with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): moderation by callous-unemotional traits. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 34(2):172–181
Frick PJ, Hare RD (2001) Antisocial process screening device: APSD. Multi-Health Systems Toronto, Toronto
Frick PJ, Morris AS (2004) Temperament and developmental pathways to conduct problems. J Clin Child Adolesc 33(1):54–68
Blair R (1999) Responsiveness to distress cues in the child with psychopathic tendencies. Personality Individ Differ 27(1):135–145
O’Brien BS, Frick PJ (1996) Reward dominance: associations with anxiety, conduct problems, and psychopathy in children. J Abnorm Child Psychol 24(2):223–240
Barry CT, Frick PJ, DeShazo TM, McCoy M, Ellis M, Loney BR (2000) The importance of callous—unemotional traits for extending the concept of psychopathy to children. J Abnorm Psychol 109(2):335
Frick PJ, O’Brien BS, Wootton JM, McBurnett K (1994) Psychopathy and conduct problems in children. J Abnorm Psychol 103(4):700
Finger EC, Marsh AA, Mitchell DG, Reid ME, Sims C, Budhani S et al (2008) Abnormal ventromedial prefrontal cortex function in children with psychopathic traits during reversal learning. Arch Gen Psychiatry 65(5):586–594
Viding E, Blair RJR, Moffitt TE, Plomin R (2005) Evidence for substantial genetic risk for psychopathy in 7-year-olds. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 46(6):592–597
Viding E, Jones AP, Paul JF, Moffitt TE, Plomin R (2008) Heritability of antisocial behaviour at 9: do callous-unemotional traits matter? Dev Sci 11(1):17–22
August GJ, Realmuto GM, MacDonald AW III, Nugent SM, Crosby R (1996) Prevalence of ADHD and comorbid disorders among elementary school children screened for disruptive behavior. J Abnorm Child Psychol 24(5):571–595
Jensen PS, Martin D, Cantwell DP (1997) Comorbidity in ADHD: implications for research, practice, and DSM-V. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 36(8):1065–1079
Milich R, Balentine AC, Lynam DR (2001) ADHD combined type and ADHD predominantly inattentive type are distinct and unrelated disorders. Clini Psychol Sci Pract 8(4):463–488
Faraone SV, Biederman J, Friedman D (2000) Validity of DSM-IV subtypes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a family study perspective. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 39(3):300–307
Ellis B, Nigg J (2009) Parenting practices and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: new findings suggest partial specificity of effects. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 48(2):146–154
Dodge KA, Pettit GS, Bates JE, Valente E (1995) Social information-processing patterns partially mediate the effect of early physical abuse on later conduct problems. J Abnorm Psychol 104(4):632
Pinderhughes EE, Dodge KA, Bates JE, Pettit GS, Zelli A (2000) Discipline responses: influences of parents’ socioeconomic status, ethnicity, beliefs about parenting, stress, and cognitive-emotional processes. J Fam Psychol 14(3):380
Bornstein MH, Bradley RH (2014) Socioeconomic status, parenting, and child development. Routledge, London
Eyberg SM, Funderburk BW, Hembree-Kigin TL, McNeil CB, Querido JG, Hood KK (2001) Parent-Child Interaction Therapy with behavior problem children: one and two year maintenance of treatment effects in the family. Child Fam Behav Ther 23(4):1–20
Webster-Stratton RMJ (2003) Treating conduct problems and strengthening social and emotional competence in young children: the Dina Dinosaur treatment program. J Emot Behav Disord 11(3):130–143
Sanders MR, Markie-Dadds C, Tully LA, Bor W (2000) The triple P-positive parenting program: a comparison of enhanced, standard, and self-directed behavioral family intervention for parents of children with early onset conduct problems. J Consult Clin Psychol 68(4):624–640
Barkley RA, Robin AL (2014) Defiant teens: a clinician’s manual for assessment and family intervention. Guilford Publications, New York
Eyberg SM, Nelson MM, Boggs SR (2008) Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents with disruptive behavior. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 37(1):215–237
Pelham WE Jr, Fabiano GA (2008) Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Child Adoles Psychol 37(1):184–214
Haas SM, Waschbusch DA, Pelham WE Jr, King S, Andrade BF, Carrey NJ (2011) Treatment response in CP/ADHD children with callous/unemotional traits. J Abnorm Child Psychol 39(4):541–552
Hawes DJ, Price MJ, Dadds MR (2014) Callous-unemotional traits and the treatment of conduct problems in childhood and adolescence: a comprehensive review. Clin Child Fam Psychol 17(3):248–267
Hawes DJ, Dadds MR (2005) The treatment of conduct problems in children with callous-unemotional traits. J Consult Clin Psychol 73(4):737
Waschbusch DA, Carrey NJ, Willoughby MT, King S, Andrade BF (2007) Effects of methylphenidate and behavior modification on the social and academic behavior of children with disruptive behavior disorders: the moderating role of callous/unemotional traits. J Clin Child Adolesc 36(4):629–644
Pasalich DS, Dadds MR, Hawes DJ, Brennan J (2012) Attachment and callous-unemotional traits in children with early-onset conduct problems. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 53(8):838–845
Kochanska G (1995) Children’s temperament, mothers’ discipline, and security of attachment: multiple pathways to emerging internalization. Child Dev 66(3):597–615
Dadds MR, Salmon K (2003) Punishment insensitivity and parenting: temperament and learning as interacting risks for antisocial behavior. Clin Child Fam Psychol 6(2):69–86
Fowles DC, Kochanska G (2000) Temperament as a moderator of pathways to conscience in children: the contribution of electrodermal activity. Psychophysiology 37(06):788–795
Allen B, Timmer SG, Urquiza AJ (2014) Parent–child interaction therapy as an attachment-based intervention: theoretical rationale and pilot data with adopted children. Child Youth Serv Rev 47:334–341
Acknowledgments
The research reported here was supported by a research Grant (R01HD058588) from the Eunice Kennedy Shiver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development to the second author. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of NICHD.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Graziano, P.A., Fabiano, G., Willoughby, M.T. et al. Callous-Unemotional Traits Among Adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Associations with Parenting. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 48, 18–31 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-016-0649-0
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-016-0649-0