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Parental Incarceration and Children’s Living Arrangements in the United States

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Abstract

The purpose of the current study is to examine associations between parental incarceration and children’s living arrangements in the United States. Data from the 2016–2018 National Survey of Children’s Health are utilized in the present study (N = 102,341). Difference-of-means t-tests and multinomial logistic regression were employed to analyze the data. Nearly 3 in 4 children with no history of parental incarceration lived with married parents, yet only 1 in 7 children with lifetime exposure to parental incarceration did. Furthermore, while exclusively non-parent caregiver arrangements were exceedingly rare for children with no lifetime exposure to parental incarceration (~ 2.5%), more than one-quarter of children exposed to parental incarceration were in exclusively non-parent caregiver arrangements. In homes with non-parent caregivers, parental incarceration is associated with a reduced prevalence of stepparent caregivers, yet an increased prevalence of grandparent, foster parent, and aunt/uncle caregivers. Additionally, over 70% of grandparent-caregiver households where children have experienced parental incarceration are skipped-generation households. The findings point to a substantial need to support diverse family structures in the wake of parental incarceration.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA

    Dylan B. Jackson

  2. College for Health, Community, and Policy, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA

    Alexander Testa

  3. College for Public Health and Social Justice, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO, USA

    Michael G. Vaughn

Authors
  1. Dylan B. Jackson
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  2. Alexander Testa
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  3. Michael G. Vaughn
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Correspondence to Dylan B. Jackson.

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Appendices

Appendix 1: Defining the different living arrangements of children in the NSCH and providing illustrative examples

Type of living arrangement

Definition

Illustrative examples

Two-parent caregivers, married

Households in which (1) primary caregivers are married, (2) the respondent primary caregiver is the biological or adoptive parent of the focal child, and (3) a second primary caregiver who resides in the household has also been designated as the biological/adoptive parent of the focal child

(1) A biological father and biological mother who are married and reside in the same household

(2) Two adoptive mothers who are married and reside in the same household

(3) A biological father and an adoptive father who are married and reside in the same household

Two-parent caregivers, unmarried

Households in which (1) primary caregivers are unmarried, (2) the respondent primary caregiver is the biological or adoptive parent of the focal child, and (3) a second primary caregiver who resides in the household has also been designated as the biological/adoptive parent of the focal child

(1) A biological father and biological mother who are unmarried and reside in the same household

(2) Two adoptive mothers who are unmarried and reside in the same household

(3) A biological father and an adoptive father who are unmarried and reside in the same household

One parent caregiver, no other

Households in which (1) there is only one designated primary caregiver and (2) the designated primary caregiver is the biological or adoptive parent of the focal child

(1) A biological mother is the sole primary caregiver of the child in the household

(2) A biological father is the sole primary caregiver of the child in the household

(3) An adoptive mother is the sole primary caregiver of the child in the household

One parent caregiver, non-parent other

Households in which (1) there are two designated primary caregivers in the household, (2) one of the primary caregivers is the biological or adoptive parent of the focal child, and (3) one of the primary caregivers is NOT the biological or adoptive parent of the focal child

(1) A biological mother and a grandmother are the two designated primary caregivers in the household

(2) An adoptive father and an uncle are the two designated primary caregivers in the household

(3) A biological mother and a stepfather are the two designated primary caregivers in the household

Two non-parent caregivers

Households in which (1) there are two designated primary caregivers in the household, and (2) NEITHER of the primary caregivers is the biological or adoptive parent of the focal child

(1) A grandfather and grandmother are the two designated primary caregivers in the household

(2) A foster father and foster mother are the two designated primary caregivers in the household

(3) An Aunt and another non-relative are the two designated primary caregivers in the household

One non-parent caregiver, no other

Households in which (1) there is only one designated primary caregiver and (2) the designated primary caregiver is NOT the biological or adoptive parent of the focal child

(1) A stepfather is the sole primary caregiver of the child in the household

(2) A grandmother is the sole primary caregiver of the child in the household

(3) An aunt is the sole primary caregiver of the child in the household

Appendix 2: Multinomial logistic model regressing children’s living arrangements on parental incarceration and covariates: moderation by race/ethnicity?

Parental incarceration

Children’s living arrangements (Reference: two parent caregivers, married)

Two parent caregivers, unmarried

One parent caregiver, no other

One parent caregiver, non-parent other

Two non-parent caregivers

One non-parent caregiver, no other

RRR (CI)

RRR (CI)

RRR (CI)

RRR (CI)

RRR (CI)

White

3.71**

(2.71–5.08)

8.42**

(6.73–10.53)

8.69**

(6.88–10.97)

34.82**

(26.20–46.26)

27.45**

(18.52–40.68)

Black

2.66**

(1.37–5.15)

2.69**

(1.67–4.36)

2.34**

(1.42–3.87)

3.99**

(2.13–7.49)

4.12**

(2.19–7.74)

Hispanic

2.95**

(1.75–4.99)

6.83**

(4.45–10.50)

6.05**

(3.90–9.38)

7.67**

(4.47–13.16)

14.07**

(6.76–29.31)

  1. All covariates included, but suppressed to converse space
  2. FPL Federal Poverty Level
  3. **p < 0.01

Appendix 3: Logistic regression of the association between parental incarceration and skipped-generation households among households with grandparent caregivers

Variables

Skipped-generation household (Reference: multigenerational household)

OR

CI

Parental incarceration

2.81**

2.19–3.61

Covariates

 Child age

1.04**

1.01–1.06

 Child sex

1.14

0.89–1.45

 Child black

1.40*

1.07–1.85

 Child Hispanic

0.76

0.53–1.07

 Child multiracial

1.01

0.70–1.45

 FPL 100–199%

1.36

0.97–1.90

 FPL 200–399%

1.85**

1.35–2.54

 FPL 400%+ 

2.67**

1.85–3.85

 Number of children in household

0.98

0.87–1.12

 Maternal age at birth

0.96**

0.94–0.98

 Primary caregiver education

0.54**

0.47–0.61

  1. Reference for household poverty ratio is “FPL < 100%”. Reference for race/ethnicity is “White”. Asian respondents and those reporting other race/ethnicity were dropped from this analysis, given the instability of these estimates due to the relative rarity of these groups and their low prevalence of parental incarceration (Carson & Anderson, 2018). Thus, the analytical sample size for this model was 5614. Reference: Carson, E. A., & Anderson, E. (2018). Prisoners in 2016. US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, NCJ, 247,282, 2
  2. FPL Federal Poverty Level
  3. **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05

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Jackson, D.B., Testa, A. & Vaughn, M.G. Parental Incarceration and Children’s Living Arrangements in the United States. Child Adolesc Soc Work J 40, 695–711 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-021-00794-5

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