Abstract
Existing literature shows conflicting and inconclusive evidence regarding women’s sexual experiences in casual sex. Some studies have found negative sexual outcomes (e.g., fewer orgasms), while others have found positive sexual outcomes (e.g., more orgasms, higher sexual satisfaction) when women had casual sex. According to self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), people’s needs are fulfilled when their choice and behavior are self-motivated and reflect their intrinsic values. We hypothesized that women’s autonomous motivation to have casual sex would be associated with higher orgasmic function, whereas nonautonomous motivation would be associated with lower orgasmic function in casual sex. We also hypothesized that sexual assertiveness would mediate the relationship between sexual motives and orgasmic function in casual sex. Participants in this study were women (N = 401) aged 18–59 years who reported having had casual sex in the past 12 months. Participants completed an online survey reporting their motives to have casual sex, sexual assertiveness, and orgasmic function (e.g., orgasm frequency, satisfaction with orgasm) in casual sex. We focused on two motives: (a) pleasure motive and (b) insecurity (i.e., self-esteem boost and pressure) motive. Results showed that greater pleasure (autonomous) motives related to higher sexual assertiveness, which in turn related to higher orgasmic function in casual sex. In contrast, greater insecurity (nonautonomous) motives related to lower sexual assertiveness, which in turn related to lower orgasmic function in casual sex. The findings support self-determination theory, suggesting that autonomous motives are important for women’s sexual experience in casual sex.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Participants from MTurk were restricted to those residing in the U.S. We recruited participants from the sub-reddit sites named “/r/sex,” “/r/SampleSize, “/r/scientificresearch,” and “/r/UndergraduateResearch” and through Facebook advertisements targeting women in the U.S. Potential participants could read the eligibility criteria before clicking the study link.
Results did not change when we ran the same analyses using only the Self-Esteem Boost subfactor or only the Pressure subfactor.
References
Apt, C., & Hurlbert, D. F. (1993). The sexuality of women in physically abusive marriages: A comparative study. Journal of Family Violence, 8, 57–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00986993
Armstrong, E. A., England, P., & Fogarty, A. C. (2012). Accounting for women’s orgasm and sexual enjoyment in college hookups and relationships. American Sociological Review, 77, 435–462. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122412445802
Armstrong, H. L., & Reissing, E. D. (2015). Women’s motivations to have sex in casual and committed relationships with male and female partners. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 921–934. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0462-4
Bersamin, M. M., Zamboanga, B. L., Schwartz, S. J., Donnellan, M. B., Hudson, M., Weisskirch, R. S., Kim, S. Y., Agocha, V. B., Whitbourne, S. K., & Caraway, S. J. (2014). Risky business: Is there an association between casual sex and mental health among emerging adults? Journal of Sex Research, 51, 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2013.772088
Brunell, A. B., & Webster, G. D. (2013). Self-determination and sexual experience in dating relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39, 970–987. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213485442
Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., & Gosling, S. D. (2016). Amazon’s Mechanical Turk: A new source of inexpensive, yet high-quality data? In A. E. Kazdin (Ed.), Methodological issues and strategies in clinical research (p. 133–139). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14805-009
Campbell, A. (2008). The morning after the night before. Human Nature, 19, 157–173. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-008-9036-2
Chandler, J., & Shapiro, D. (2016). Conducting clinical research using crowdsourced convenience samples. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 12, 53–81. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093623
Claxton, S. E., & van Dulmen, M. H. (2013). Casual sexual relationships and experiences in emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 1, 138–150.
Conley, T. D., Ziegler, A., & Moors, A. C. (2013). Backlash from the bedroom: Stigma mediates gender differences in acceptance of casual sex offers. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37, 392–407. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684312467169
Costa, P. T., Jr., Terracciano, A., & McCrae, R. R. (2001). Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(2), 322–331.
Cotten-Houston, A. L., & Wheeler, K. A. (1983). Preorgasmic group treatment: Assertiveness, marital adjustment and sexual functioning in women. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 9, 296–302. https://doi.org/10.1080/00926238308410916
de Jong, D. C., Adams, K. N., & Reis, H. T. (2018). Predicting women’s emotional responses to hooking up: Do motives matter? Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 35, 532–556. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407517743077
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Plenum.
Dubé, S., Lavoie, F., Blais, M., & Hébert, M. (2017). Consequences of casual sex relationships and experiences on adolescents’ psychological well-being: A prospective study. Journal of Sex Research, 54, 1006–1017. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1255874
Farvid, P., & Braun, V. (2017). Unpacking the “pleasures” and “pains” of heterosexual casual sex: Beyond singular understandings. Journal of Sex Research, 54, 73–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1143442
Farvid, P., Braun, V., & Rowney, C. (2017). ‘No girl wants to be called a slut!’: Women, heterosexual casual sex and the sexual double standard. Journal of Gender Studies, 26, 544–560. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2016.1150818
Ferrer-Pérez, V. A., & Bosch-Fiol, E. (2014). The measure of the masculinity–femininity construct today: Some reflections on the case of the Bem Sex Role Inventory/La medida del constructo masculinidad–feminidad en la actualidad: Algunas reflexiones sobre el caso del Bem Sex Role Inventory. Revista de Psicología Social, 29(1), 180–207.
Fetterolf, J. C., & Sanchez, D. T. (2015). The costs and benefits of perceived sexual agency for men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 961–970. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0408-x
Fisher, M. L., Worth, K., Garcia, J. R., & Meredith, T. (2012). Feelings of regret following uncommitted sexual encounters in Canadian university students. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 14, 45–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2011.619579
Garcia, J. R., & Reiber, C. (2008). Hook-up behavior: A biopsychosocial perspective. Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology, 2, 192–208. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0099345
Garcia, J. R., Reiber, C., Massey, S. G., & Merriwether, A. M. (2012). Sexual hookup culture: A review. Review of General Psychology, 16, 161–176. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027911
Gesselman, A. N., Webster, G. D., & Garcia, J. R. (2017). Has virginity lost its virtue? Relationship stigma associated with being a sexually inexperienced adult. Journal of Sex Research, 54, 202–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1144042
Graham, C. A., Catania, J. A., Brand, R., Duong, T., & Canchola, J. A. (2003). Recalling sexual behavior: A methodological analysis of memory recall bias via interview using the diary as the gold standard. Journal of Sex Research, 40(4), 325–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490209552198
Gravel, E. E. (2017). On the benefits of being sexually autonomous and costs of being sexually pressured: The contributions of different motives for sex to experiences of sexual well-being (Doctoral dissertation, University of Ottawa). Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/https://doi.org/10.20381/ruor-20725
Gravel, E. E., Pelletier, L. G., & Reissing, E. D. (2016). “Doing it” for the right reasons: Validation of a measurement of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation for sexual relationships. Personality and Individual Differences, 92, 164–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.12.015
Gravel, E. E., Reissing, E. D., & Pelletier, L. G. (2020). The ebb and flow of sexual well-being: The contributions of basic psychological needs and autonomous and controlled sexual motivation to daily variations in sexual well-being. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 37, 2286–2306. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407520921558
Grello, C. M., Welsh, D. P., & Harper, M. S. (2006). No strings attached: The nature of casual sex in college students. The Journal of Sex Research, 43, 255–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490609552324
Gusakova, S., Conley, T. D., Piemonte, J. L., & Matsick, J. L. (2020). The role of women’s orgasm goal pursuit in women’s orgasm occurrence. Personality and Individual Differences, 155, 109628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109628
Haavio-Mannila, E., & Kontula, O. (1997). Correlates of increased sexual satisfaction. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 26, 399–419. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024591318836
Hehman, J. A., & Salmon, C. A. (2019). Beyond sex differences: Predictors of negative emotions following casual sex. Evolutionary Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-019-00217-w
Howard, J. R., O’Neill, S., & Travers, C. (2006). Factors affecting sexuality in older Australian women: Sexual interest, sexual arousal, relationships and sexual distress in older Australian women. Climacteric, 9, 355–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/13697130600961870
Hurlbert, D. F. (1991). The role of assertiveness in female sexuality: A comparative study between sexually assertive and sexually nonassertive women. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 17, 183–190. https://doi.org/10.1080/00926239108404342
Impett, E. A., Peplau, L. A., & Gable, S. L. (2005). Approach and avoidance sexual motives: Implications for personal and interpersonal well-being. Personal Relationships, 12, 465–482. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2005.00126.x
Jenkins, S. S. (2004). Gender and self -determination in sexual motivation (Order No. 3114928). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (305153918). Retrieved from https://login.lp.hscl.ufl.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/305153918?accountid=10920
Kaestle, C. E., & Evans, L. M. (2018). Implications of no recent sexual activity, casual sex, or exclusive sex for college women’s sexual well-being depend on sexual attitudes. Journal of American College Health, 66, 32–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2017.1369090
Kennair, L. E. O., Wyckoff, J. P., Asao, K., Buss, D. M., & Bendixen, M. (2018). Why do women regret casual sex more than men do? Personality and Individual Differences, 127, 61–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.01.044
Kenney, S. R., Thadani, V., Ghaidarov, T., & LaBrie, J. W. (2013). First-year college women’s motivations for hooking up: A mixed-methods examination of normative peer perceptions and personal hookup participation. International Journal of Sexual Health, 25, 212–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317611.2013.786010
Kettrey, H. H. (2016). What’s gender got to do with it? Sexual double standards and power in heterosexual college hookups. Journal of Sex Research, 53, 754–765. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1145181
Kuriansky, J. B., Sharpe, L., & O’Connor, D. (1982). The treatment of anorgasmia: Long-term effectiveness of a short-term behavioral group therapy. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 8, 29–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/00926238208405810
Little, T. D., Cunningham, W. A., Shahar, G., & Widaman, K. F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 151–173. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_1
Lyons, H. A., Manning, W. D., Longmore, M. A., & Giordano, P. C. (2014). Young adult casual sexual behavior: Life-course-specific motivations and consequences. Sociological Perspectives, 57, 79–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731121413517557
MacKinnon, D. P., Krull, J. L., & Lockwood, C. M. (2000). Equivalence of the mediation, confounding and suppression effect. Prevention Science, 1, 173–181. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026595011371
Ménard, A. D., & Offman, A. (2009). The interrelationships between sexual self-esteem, sexual assertiveness and sexual satisfaction. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 18, 35–45. https://login.lp.hscl.ufl.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/220818451?accountid=10920
Meston, C. M., & Buss, D. M. (2007). Why humans have sex. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36, 477–507. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9175-2
Montes, K. S., Napper, L. E., Froidevaux, N. M., Kenney, S., & LaBrie, J. W. (2016). Negative affect as a moderator of the relationship between hookup motives and hookup consequences. Journal of American College Health, 64, 668–672. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2016.1213732
Moran, C., & Lee, C. (2014). Women’s constructions of heterosexual non-romantic sex and the implications for sexual health. Psychology & Sexuality, 5, 161–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2012.715588
Muise, A., Boudreau, G. K., & Rosen, N. O. (2017). Seeking connection versus avoiding disappointment: An experimental manipulation of approach and avoidance sexual goals and the implications for desire and satisfaction. Journal of Sex Research, 54, 296–307. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1152455
Muise, A., Maxwell, J. A., & Impett, E. A. (2018). What theories and methods from relationship research can contribute to sex research. Journal of Sex Research, 55, 540–562. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1421608
Muthén, L.K. & Muthén, B.O. (1998–2017). Mplus user's guide (8th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
Paul, E. L., & Hayes, K. A. (2002). The casualties of ‘casual’ sex: A qualitative exploration of the phenomenology of college students’ hookups. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 19, 639–661. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407502195006
Paul, E. L., McManus, B., & Hayes, A. (2000). “Hook-ups”: Characteristics and correlates of college students’ spontaneous and anonymous sexual experiences. Journal of Sex Research, 37, 76–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490009552023
Petersen, J. L., & Hyde, J. S. (2010). A meta-analytic review of research on gender differences in sexuality, 1993–2007. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 21–38. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017504
Piemonte, J. L., Conley, T. D., & Gusakova, S. (2019). Orgasm, gender, and responses to heterosexual casual sex. Personality and Individual Differences, 151, 109487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.06.030
Pierce, A. P., & Hurlbert, M. K. (1999). Test–retest reliability of the Hurlbert index of sexual assertiveness. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 88, 31–34. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1999.88.1.31
Regan, P. C., & Dreyer, C. S. (1999). Lust? Love? Status? Young adults’ motives for engaging in casual sex. Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality, 11, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1300/J056v11n01_01
Rickert, V. I., Neal, W. P., Wiemann, C. M., & Berenson, A. B. (2000). Prevalence and predictors of low sexual assertiveness. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 13, 88–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1083-3188(00)00016-4
Rickert, V. I., Sanghvi, R., & Wiemann, C. M. (2002). Is lack of sexual assertiveness among adolescent and young adult women a cause for concern? Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 34, 178–183. https://doi.org/10.2307/3097727
Rosen, R., Brown, C., Heiman, J., Leiblum, S., Meston, C., Shabsigh, R., Ferguson, D., & D’Agostino, R. (2000). The Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI): A multidimensional self-report instrument for the assessment of female sexual function. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 26, 191–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/009262300278597
Rowland, D., Donarski, A., Graves, V., Caldwell, C., Hevesi, B., & Hevesi, K. (2019). The experience of orgasmic pleasure during partnered and masturbatory sex in women with and without orgasmic difficulty. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 45, 550–561. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2019.1586021
Sanchez, D. T., Crocker, J., & Boike, K. R. (2005). Doing gender in the bedroom: Investing in gender norms and the sexual experience. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1445–1455. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205277333
Sanchez, D. T., Kiefer, A. K., & Ybarra, O. (2006). Sexual submissiveness in women: Costs for sexual autonomy and arousal. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 512–524. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205282154
Sandberg-Thoma, S. E., & Kamp Dush, C. M. (2014). Casual sexual relationships and mental health in adolescence and emerging adulthood. Journal of Sex Research, 51, 121–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2013.821440
Sheldon, K. M., & Prentice, M. (2019). Self-determination theory as a foundation for personality researchers. Journal of Personality, 87, 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12360
Smith, C. V. (2007). In pursuit of ‘good’ sex: Self-determination and the sexual experience. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 24, 69–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407507072589
Snapp, S., Ryu, E., & Kerr, J. (2015). The upside to hooking up: College students’ positive hookup experiences. International Journal of Sexual Health, 27, 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317611.2014.939247
Stephenson, K. R., Ahrold, T. K., & Meston, C. M. (2011). The association between sexual motives and sexual satisfaction: Gender differences and categorical comparisons. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40, 607–618. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-010-9674-4
Stewart-Williams, S., Butler, C. A., & Thomas, A. G. (2017). Sexual history and present attractiveness: People want a mate with a bit of a past, but not too much. Journal of Sex Research, 54, 1097–1105. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1232690
Sumter, S. R., Vandenbosch, L., & Ligtenberg, L. (2017). Love me Tinder: Untangling emerging adults’ motivations for using the dating application Tinder. Telematics and Informatics, 34, 67–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2016.04.009
Tóth-Király, I., Vallerand, R. J., Bőthe, B., Rigó, A., & Orosz, G. (2019). Examining sexual motivation profiles and their correlates using latent profile analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 146, 76–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.04.002
Townsend, J. M., Jonason, P. K., & Wasserman, T. H. (2020). Associations between motives for casual sex, depression, self-esteem, and sexual victimization. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49, 1189–1197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01482-3
Trompeter, S. E., Bettencourt, R., & Barrett-Connor, E. (2012). Sexual activity and satisfaction in healthy community-dwelling older women. American Journal of Medicine, 125, 37–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2011.07.036
Vrangalova, Z. (2015). Does casual sex harm college students’ well-being? A longitudinal investigation of the role of motivation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 945–959. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-013-0255-1
Vrangalova, Z., & Ong, A. D. (2014). Who benefits from casual sex? The moderating role of sociosexuality. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 5, 883–891. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550614537308
Weaver, S. J., & Herold, E. S. (2000). Casual sex and women: Measurement and motivational issues. Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality, 12, 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1300/J056v12n03_02
Webster, G. D., Smith, C. V., Orozco, T., Jonason, P. K., Gesselman, A. N., & Greenspan, R. L. (2021). Missed connections and embarrassing confessions: Using big data to examine sex differences in sexual omission and commission regret. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, 15, 275–284. https://doi.org/10.1037/ebs0000199
Woerner, J., & Abbey, A. (2017). Positive feelings after casual sex: The role of gender and traditional gender-role beliefs. Journal of Sex Research, 54, 717–727. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1208801
Wongsomboon, V., Burleson, M. H., & Webster, G. D. (2020). Women’s orgasm and sexual satisfaction in committed sex and casual sex: Relationship between sociosexuality and sexual outcomes in different sexual contexts. Journal of Sex Research, 57, 285–295. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2019.1672036
Wood, J., Desmarais, S., Burleigh, T., & Milhausen, R. (2018). Reasons for sex and relational outcomes in consensually nonmonogamous and monogamous relationships: A self-determination theory approach. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 35, 632–654. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407517743082
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
All participants read an informational letter regarding the study and their right as a participant, then provided their consent to participate by proceeding to the actual survey.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wongsomboon, V., Webster, G.D. & Burleson, M.H. It’s The “Why”: Links between (Non)autonomous Sexual Motives, Sexual Assertiveness, and Women’s Orgasm in Casual Sex. Arch Sex Behav 51, 621–632 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-021-02103-8
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-021-02103-8