What do Biologists Make of the Species Problem?

Abstract

The concept of species is one of the core concepts in biology and one of the cornerstones of evolutionary biology, yet it is rife with conceptual problems. Philosophers of biology have been discussing the concept of species for decades, and in doing so they sometimes appeal to the views of biologists. However, their statements as to what biologists think are seldom supported by empirical data. In order to investigate what biologists actually think about the key issues related to the problem of species, we have conducted a survey on the sample of 193 biologists from the population of biologists from over 150 biology departments at universities in the US and the EU. This article presents and discusses the results of the survey. Some results confirm and others falsify the reiterated statements of philosophers of biology as to what biologists think, but all results we obtained should be informative and relevant for future discussions of the problem of species.

Appendix

List of all Universities to which the survey has been sent beyond any reasonable doubt:

• 1. Adams State University

• 2. Agnes Scott College

• 3. Albion College

• 4. Allegheny College

• 5. American University

• 6. Appalachian State University

• 7. Arizona State University

• 8. Armstrong Atlantic State University

• 9. Auburn University

• 10. Azusa Pacific University

• 11. Baker University

• 12. Ball State University

• 13. Bates College

• 14. Baylor University

• 15. Beloit College

• 16. Benedictine University

• 17. Berry College

• 18. Bethany College

• 19. Bismarck State College

• 20. Bloomsburg University

• 21. Boston College

• 22. Boston University

• 23. Bowdoin University

• 24. Bowling Green State University

• 25. Bradley University

• 26. Brandeis University

• 27. Brigham Young University

• 28. Brown University

• 29. Bucknell University

• 30. Buena Vista University

• 31. Butler University

• 32. BYU Hawaii

• 33. California Polytechnic State University San Luis Obispo

• 34. California State Polytechnic University Pomona

• 35. California Institute of Technology

• 36. California State University at Bakersfield

• 37. California State University at Chico

• 38. California State University at Dominguez Hills

• 39. California State University at Fresno

• 40. California State University at Fullerton

• 41. California State University at Long Beach

• 42. California State University at Los Angeles

• 43. California State University at Northridge

• 44. California State University at Sacramento

• 45. California State University at San Bernardino

• 46. California State University at San Marcos

• 47. California State University at Stanislaus

• 48. Californian Lutheran University

• 49. Carnegie Mellon University

• 50. Central Connecticut State University

• 51. Central Michigan University

• 52. Central Washington University

• 53. Chadron State College

• 54. Chalmers University of Technology

• 55. Chaminade University

• 56. Chicago State University

• 57. Clemson University

• 58. Cleveland State University

• 59. Coastal Carolina University

• 60. College of Charleston

• 61. College of Idaho

• 62. College of New Jersey

• 63. College of St. Benedict and St. John’s University

• 64. College of William & Mary at Williamsburg

• 65. Colorado College

• 66. Colorado State University

• 67. Columbia University

• 68. Connecticut College

• 69. Cornell University

• 70. Creighton University

• 71. Dartmouth college

• 72. Delaware State University

• 73. Delta State University

• 74. DePaul University

• 75. Drake University

• 76. Drew University

• 77. Duke University

• 78. East Carolina University

• 79. East Tennessee State university

• 80. Eastern Arizona College

• 81. Eastern Connecticut State University

• 82. Eastern Illinois University

• 83. Eastern Kentucky University

• 84. Eastern Michigan University

• 85. Eastern New Mexico University

• 86. Eastern Oregon university

• 87. Eastern Washington University

• 88. Emory University

• 89. Fairfield University

• 90. Farleigh Dickenson University

• 91. Fayetteville State University

• 92. Fisk University

• 93. Florida Institute of Technology

• 94. Florida State University

• 95. Fort Hays State University

• 96. Fort Lewis College

• 97. Franklin College

• 98. Furman University

• 99. George Fox University

• 100. George Mason University

• 101. George Washington University

• 102. Georgetown College

• 103. Georgia Institute of Technology

• 104. Georgia Southern University

• 105. Georgia State University

• 106. Gonzaga University

• 107. Goucher College

• 108. Grambling State University

• 109. Hampton University

• 110. Hannover College

• 111. Harvard University

• 112. Hawaii Pacific University

• 113. Henrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf

• 114. Idaho State University

• 115. Illinois College

• 116. Illinois Institute of Technology

• 117. Illinois State University

• 118. Indiana State University

• 119. Indiana University Bloomington

• 120. Indiana University South Bend

• 121. Iowa State University

• 122. Jackson State University

• 123. Jacksonville University

• 124. James Madison University

• 125. Johns Hopkins University

• 126. Kansas State University

• 127. Keene State College

• 128. Kent State University

• 129. Kentucky State University

• 130. LaGrange College

• 131. LaSalle University

• 132. Lawrence University

• 133. Lehigh University

• 134. Long Island University

• 135. Long Island University Brooklyn Campus

• 136. Louisiana College

• 137. Louisiana State University Baton Rouge

• 138. Louisiana State University Shreveport

• 139. Louisiana Tech University

• 140. Loyola Marymount University

• 141. Loyola University Maryland

• 142. Loyola University New Orleans

• 143. Marquette University

• 144. Marshall University in Huntington, West Virginia

• 145. Mayville State University

• 146. McDaniel College

• 147. Mesa State College

• 148. Metropolitan State University of Denver

• 149. Miami University of Ohio at Oxford

• 150. Michigan State University

• 151. Middle Tennessee State University

• 152. Middlebury College

• 153. Midwestern State University

• 154. Millsaps College

• 155. Minnesota State University Mankato

• 156. Minnesota State University Moorhead

• 157. Mississippi College

• 158. Mississippi State University

• 159. Mississippi University for Women

• 160. Missouri Southern State University

• 161. Missouri State University

• 162. Missouri Western State College

• 163. MIT

• 164. Monash University

• 165. Montana State University Bozeman

• 166. Montana State University Billings

• 167. Montana Technology

• 168. Morehead State University

• 169. Morehouse College

• 170. Morgan State University

• 171. Mount Mercy University

• 172. Murray State University

• 173. Nebraska Wesleyan University

• 174. New England College

• 175. New Jersey Institute of Technology

• 176. New Mexico Highlands University

• 177. New Mexico State University

• 178. New York University

• 179. North Carolina AT&T State University

• 180. North Carolina Central University

• 181. North Carolina State University

• 182. North Carolina Wesleyan College

• 183. North Dakota State University

• 184. Northeastern State University

• 185. Northeastern University

• 186. Northern Arizona University

• 187. Northern Illinois University

• 188. Northern Kentucky University

• 189. Northern Michigan University

• 190. Northern State University

• 191. Northwest Missouri State University

• 192. Northwestern Oklahoma State University

• 193. Northwestern University

• 194. Norwich University

• 195. Oglethorpe University

• 196. Ohio State University

• 197. Ohio University at Athens

• 198. Ohio Wesleyan University

• 199. Oklahoma State University

• 200. Old Dominion University

• 201. Oregon State University

• 202. Ouachita Baptist university

• 203. Pacific Lutheran University

• 204. Pacific University

• 205. Pennsylvania State University

• 206. Pennsylvania State University in Erie

• 207. Pepperdine University

• 208. Plymouth State University

• 209. Portland State University

• 210. Princeton University

• 211. Providence College

• 212. Purdue University

• 213. Reed College

• 214. Regis University

• 215. Rhode Island College

• 216. Rice University

• 217. Rider University

• 218. Rockhurst University

• 219. Rocky Mountain College

• 220. Roger Williams University

• 221. Rollins College

• 222. Rutgers University at Camden

• 223. Rutgers University at New Brunswick

• 224. Saint Anselm College

• 225. Saint Mary’s University of Minnesota

• 226. Salisbury University

• 227. Sam Houston State University

• 228. Samford University

• 229. San Diego State University

• 230. San Francisco State University

• 231. San Jose State University

• 232. Santa Clara University

• 233. Seattle Pacific University

• 234. Seattle University

• 235. Seton Hall University

• 236. South Carolina State University

• 237. South Dakota State University

• 238. Southeast Missouri State University

• 239. Southeastern Louisiana University

• 240. Southern Connecticut State University

• 241. Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville

• 242. Southern Oregon University

• 243. Southern University at Baton Rouge

• 244. Southern Utah University

• 245. Southwestern College

• 246. Southwestern Oklahoma State University

• 247. Southwestern University

• 248. Spalding University

• 249. Spelman College

• 250. Stanford University

• 251. State University of New York at Albany

• 252. State University of New York at Binghamton

• 253. State University of New York at Buffalo

• 254. State University of New York at Oswego

• 255. State University of New York at Plattsburgh

• 256. State University of New York at Stony Brook

• 257. Syracuse University

• 258. Temple University

• 259. Tennessee State University

• 260. Texas A&M University at College Station

• 261. Texas A&M University at Corpus Christi

• 262. Texas A&M University at Galveston

• 263. Texas State University

• 264. Texas Tech University

• 265. The University of Rhode Island

• 266. Transylvania University

• 267. Truman State University

• 268. Tufts University

• 269. Tulane University

• 270. Tuskegee University

• 271. University of Alabama at Birmingham

• 272. University of Alabama at Huntsville

• 273. University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa

• 274. University of Alaska at Fairbanks

• 275. University of Alaska at Juneau

• 276. University of Arizona

• 277. University of Arkansas at Monticello

• 278. University of Arkansas at Fayetteville

• 279. University of Arkansas at Little Rock

• 280. University of Bridgeport

• 281. University of California at Berkeley

• 282. University of California at Irvine

• 283. University of California at Los Angeles

• 284. University of California at Riverside

• 285. University of California at San Diego

• 286. University of California at Santa Barbara

• 287. University of California at Santa Cruz

• 288. University of Central Arkansas

• 289. University of Central Florida

• 290. University of Central Missouri

• 291. University of Central Oklahoma

• 292. University of Cincinnati

• 293. University of Colorado at Boulder

• 294. University of Colorado at Colorado Springs

• 295. University of Colorado at Denver

• 296. University of Connecticut

• 297. University of Dallas

• 298. University of Delaware

• 299. University of Denver

• 300. University of Detroit Mercy

• 301. University Of Evansville

• 302. University of Findlay

• 303. University of Florida

• 304. University of Georgia

• 305. University of Hartford

• 306. University of Hawaii

• 307. University of Houston

• 308. University of Idaho

• 309. University of Illinois at Chicago

• 310. University of Illinois at Springfield

• 311. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

• 312. University of Indianapolis

• 313. University of Iowa

• 314. University of Kansas

• 315. University of Kentucky at Lexington

• 316. University of Louisiana at Lafayette

• 317. University of Louisiana Monroe

• 318. University of Louisville

• 319. University of Maine Farmington

• 320. University of Maine Fort Kent

• 321. University of Maryland at Baltimore County

• 322. University of Maryland at College Park

• 323. University of Massachusetts at Amherst

• 324. University of Massachusetts at Boston

• 325. University of Massachusetts at Dartmouth College

• 326. University of Massachusetts at Lowell

• 327. University of Memphis

• 328. University of Miami

• 329. University of Michigan at Ann Arbor

• 330. University of Michigan at Dearborn

• 331. University of Michigan at Flint

• 332. University of Minnesota at Morris

• 333. University of Minnesota Duluth

• 334. University of Minnesota Twin Cities

• 335. University of Mississippi

• 336. University of Missouri at Columbia

• 337. University of Missouri at Rolla

• 338. University of Missouri at St. Louis

• 339. University of Montana

• 340. University of Nebraska – Lincoln

• 341. University of Nebraska at Omaha

• 342. University of Nebraska Kearney

• 343. University of Nevada Las Vegas

• 344. University of Nevada Reno

• 345. University of New England

• 346. University of New Hampshire

• 347. University of New Haven

• 348. University of New Mexico

• 349. University of New Orleans

• 350. University of North Alabama

• 351. University of North Carolina at Asheville

• 352. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

• 353. University of North Carolina at Charlotte

• 354. University of North Carolina at Greensboro

• 355. University of North Carolina at Pembroke

• 356. University of North Carolina at Wilmington

• 357. University of North Dakota

• 358. University of North Texas

• 359. University of Northern Colorado

• 360. University of Northern Iowa

• 361. University of Notre Dame

• 362. University of Oklahoma

• 363. University of Oregon

• 364. University of Pennsylvania

• 365. University of Pittsburgh

• 366. University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown

• 367. University of Portland

• 368. University of Richmond

• 369. University of Rijeka

• 370. University of Rochester

• 371. University of San Diego

• 372. University of San Francisco

• 373. University of Scranton

• 374. University of South Alabama

• 375. University of South Carolina at Aiken

• 376. University of South Carolina at Columbia

• 377. University of South Carolina at Spartanburg

• 378. University of South Dakota

• 379. University of South Florida

• 380. University of Southern California

• 381. University of Southern Indiana

• 382. University of Southern Maine

• 383. University of Southern Mississippi at Hattiesburg

• 384. University of St. Thomas

• 385. University of Tampa

• 386. University of Tennessee at Chattanooga

• 387. University of Tennessee at Knoxville

• 388. University of Tennessee at Martin

• 389. University of Texas at Arlington

• 390. University of Texas at Austin

• 391. University of Texas at Dallas

• 392. University of Texas at El Paso

• 393. University of Toledo

• 394. University of Tulsa

• 395. University of Utah

• 396. University of Vermont

• 397. University of Virginia

• 398. University of Washington

• 399. University of West Alabama

• 400. University of West Florida

• 401. University of West Georgia

• 402. University of Wisconsin at Eau Claire

• 403. University of Wisconsin at Green Bay

• 404. University of Wisconsin at LaCrosse

• 405. University of Wisconsin at Madison

• 406. University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee

• 407. University of Wisconsin at Oshkosh

• 408. University of Wisconsin at Parkside

• 409. University of Wisconsin at River Falls

• 410. University of Wisconsin at Superior

• 411. University of Wyoming

• 412. Utah State University

• 413. Utah Valley State College

• 414. Valdosta State University

• 415. Vanderbilt University

• 416. Villanova University

• 417. Virginia State University

• 418. Virginia Tech

• 419. Wake Forest University

• 420. Washington State University

• 421. Washington University in St. Louis

• 422. Wayne State University

• 423. Weber State University

• 424. Wesley College

• 425. West Liberty University

• 426. West Texas A&M University

• 427. West Virginia University

• 428. Western Carolina University

• 429. Western Connecticut State University

• 430. Western Illinois University

• 431. Western Kentucky University

• 432. Western Michigan University

• 433. Western New England College

• 434. Western New Mexico University

• 435. Western Oregon University

• 436. Western State College of Colorado

• 437. Western Washington University

• 438. Wheaton College

• 439. Wichita State University

• 440. Wingate University

• 441. Winona State University

• 442. Xavier University

• 443. Xavier University of Louisiana

• 444. Yale University

• 445. York College

• 446. Youngstown State University