Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Olfactory discrimination and generalization of ammonium nitrate and structurally related odorants in Labrador retrievers

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Animal Cognition Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

A critical aspect of canine explosive detection involves the animal’s ability respond to novel, untrained odors based on prior experience with training odors. In the current study, adult Labrador retrievers (N = 15) were initially trained to discriminate between a rewarded odor (vanillin) and an unrewarded odor (ethanol) by manipulating scented objects with their nose in order to receive a food reward using a canine-adapted discrimination training apparatus. All dogs successfully learned this olfactory discrimination task (≥80 % correct in a mean of 296 trials). Next, dogs were trained on an ammonium nitrate (AN, NH4NO3) olfactory discrimination task [acquired in 60–240 trials, with a mean (±SEM) number of trials to criterion of 120.0 ± 15.6] and then tested for their ability to respond to untrained ammonium- and/or nitrate-containing chemicals as well as variants of AN compounds. Dogs did not respond to sodium nitrate or ammonium sulfate compounds at rates significantly higher than chance (58.8 ± 4.5 and 57.7 ± 3.3 % correct, respectively). Transfer performance to fertilizer-grade AN, AN mixed in Iraqi soil, and AN and flaked aluminum was significantly higher than chance (66.7 ± 3.2, 73.3 ± 4.0, 68.9 ± 4.0 % correct, respectively); however, substantial individual differences were observed. Only 53, 60, and 64 % of dogs had a correct response rate with fertilizer-grade AN, AN and Iraqi soil, and AN and flaked aluminum, respectively, that were greater than chance. Our results suggest that dogs do not readily generalize from AN to similar AN-based odorants at reliable levels desired for explosive detection dogs and that performance varies significantly within Labrador retrievers selected for an explosive detection program.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Arvidsson J, Amundin M, Laska M (2012) Successful acquisition of an olfactory discrimination test by Asian elephants, Elephas maximus. Physiol Behav 105:809–814

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bodyak N, Slotnick B (1999) Performance of mice in an automated olfactometer: odor detection, discrimination and odor memory. Chem Senses 24:637–645

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Callahan H, Ikeda-Douglas C, Head E, Cotman CW, Milgram NW (2000) Development of a protocol for studying object recognition memory in the dog. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 24:693–707

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dorman DC, Mokashi V, Wagner DJ, Olabisi AO, Wong BA, Moss OR, Centeno JA, Guandalini G, Jackson DA, Dennis WE, Lewis JA, Thomas RS, Chapman GD (2012) Biological responses in rats exposed to cigarette smoke and Middle East sand (dust). Inhal Toxicol 24:109–124

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eisler DF (2012) Counter-IED strategy in modern war. Mil Rev 92:9–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Frasnelli J, Hummel T, Berg J, Huang G, Doty RL (2011) Intranasal localizability of odorants: influence of stimulus volume. Chem Senses 36:405–410

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Furton KG, Myers LJ (2001) The scientific foundation and efficacy of the use of canines as chemical detectors for explosives. Talanta 54:487–500

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gazit I, Terkel J (2003) Domination of olfaction over vision in explosives detection by dogs. Appl Anim Behav Sci 82:65–73

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghirlanda S, Enquist M (2003) A century of generalization. Anim Behav 66:15–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harper RJ, Almirall JR, Furton KG (2005) Identification of dominant odor chemicals emanating from explosives for use in developing optimal training aid combinations and mimics for canine detection. Talanta 67:313–327

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herstik M, Smith J (2006) Structured generalization in scent training of explosive detection canines. Detonator 33:46–50. http://www.detectiondogs.com/articles/ScentGeneralization.pdf. Accessed 13 June 2014

  • Hess G (2013) Explosive questions. Chem Eng News 91:24–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Hubener F, Laska M (2001) A two-choice discrimination method to asses olfactory performance in pigtailed macaques, Macaca nemestrina. Physiol Behav 72:511–519

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnen D, Heuwieser W, Fischer-Tenhagen C (2013) Canine scent detection—fact or fiction? Appl Anim Behav Sci 148:201–208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston JM (1999) Canine detection capabilities: operational implications of recent R&D findings. Institute for biological detection systems, Auburn University, Auburn

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones BM (2011) Applied behavior analysis is ideal for the development of a land mine detection technology using animals. Behav Anal 34:55–73

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joussain P, Chakirian A, Kermen F, Rouby C, Bensafi M (2011) Physicochemical influence on odor hedonics: where does it occur first? Commun Integr Biol 4:563–565

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kopp C (2008) Technology of improvised explosive devices. Def Today. 46–49. http://www.ausairpower.net/SP/DT-IED-1007.pdf. Accessed 13 June 2014

  • Lamothe D (2010) Dogs becoming essential in fight against IEDs. MarineCorps Times. March 25, 2010. http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/article/20100325/NEWS/3250309/Dogs-becoming-essential-fight-against-IEDs. Accessed 13 June 2014

  • Laska M, Salazar LTH, Luna ER (2003) Successful acquisition of an olfactory discrimination paradigm by spider monkeys, Ateles geoffroyi. Physiol Behav 78:321–329

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laska M, Svelander M, Amundin M (2008) Successful acquisition of an olfactory discrimination paradigm by South African fur seals, Arctocephalus pusillus. Physiol Behav 93:1033–1038

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarowski L, Dorman DC (2014) Explosives detection by military working dogs: olfactory generalization from components to mixtures. Appl Anim Behav Sci 151:84–93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarowski L, Foster ML, Gruen ME, Sherman BL, Case BC, Fish RE, Milgram NW, Dorman DC (2014) Acquisition of a visual discrimination and reversal learning task by Labrador retrievers. Anim Cogn 17:787–792

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lit L, Schweitzer JB, Oberbauer AM (2011) Handler beliefs affect scent detection dog outcomes. Anim Cogn 14:387–394

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lubow RE, Kahn M, Frommer R (1973) Information processing of olfactory stimuli by the dog: 1. The acquisition and retention of four odor-pair discriminations. Bull Psychon Soc 1:143–145

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milgram NW, Head E, Weiner E, Thomas E (1994) Cognitive functions and aging in the dog: acquisition of nonspatial visual tasks. Behav Neurosci 108:57–68

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oxley JC, Waggoner LP (2009) Detection of explosives by dogs. In: Marshall M, Oxley JC (eds) Aspects of explosives detection.  Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp 27–40. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-374533-0.00003-9

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Penn-Barwell JG, Bennett PM, Kay A, Sargeant ID (2014) Acute bilateral leg amputation following combat injury in UK servicemen. Injury 45(7):1105–1110

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Savic I (2002) Imaging of brain activation by odorants in humans. Curr Opin Neurobiol 12:455–461

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sherman BL, Gruen ME, Case BC, Foster ML, Fish RE, Lazarowski L, Dorman DC (2015) A test for the evaluation of emotional reactivity in Labrador retrievers used for explosives detection. J Vet Behav 10:94–102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slotnick BM, Kufera A, Silberberg AM (1991) Olfactory learning and odor memory in the rat. Physiol Behav 50:555–561

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Søndergaard LV, Holm IE, Herskin MS, Dagnæs-Hansen F, Johansen MG, Jørgensen AL, Ladewig J (2010) Determination of odor detection threshold in the Gottingen minipig. Chem Senses 35:727–734

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stephenson D, Halpern BP (2009) No oral-cavity–only discrimination of purely olfactory odorants. Chem Senses 34:121–126

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tapp PD, Siwak CT, Estrada J, Head E, Muggenburg BA, Cotman CW, Milgram NW (2003) Size and reversal learning in the beagle dog as a measure of executive function and inhibitory control in aging. Learn Mem 10(1):64–73

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams M, Johnston J (2002) Training and maintaining the performance of dogs (Canis familiaris) on an increasing number of odor discriminations in a controlled setting. Appl Anim Behav Sci 78:55–65

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wynne CDL, Udell MAR, Lord KA (2008) Ontogeny’s impacts on human-dog communication. Anim Behav 76:e1–e4

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This work was funded by a contract to K2 Solutions, Inc. from the US Office of Naval Research. We would also like to thank NCSU-CVM veterinary services and Laboratory Animal Resources groups for their assistance on the project.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Auburn University, 226 Thach Hall, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA

    Lucia Lazarowski

  2. Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, NC, USA

    Melanie L. Foster & David C. Dorman

  3. Department of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, NC, USA

    Margaret E. Gruen, Barbara L. Sherman & Richard E. Fish

  4. Department of Pharmacology, University of Toronto, 1 King’s College Circle, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A8, Canada

    Norton W. Milgram

Authors
  1. Lucia Lazarowski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Melanie L. Foster
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Margaret E. Gruen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Barbara L. Sherman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Richard E. Fish
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Norton W. Milgram
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. David C. Dorman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lucia Lazarowski.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical approval

This research complies with the current laws of the USA and was reviewed and approved by the NCSU Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) and the DoD US Army Medical Research and Materiel Command (USAMRMC) Animal Care and Use Review Office (ACURO). NCSU research animal facilities are inspected semiannually by the NCSU IACUC, and the CVM is accredited by the Association for the Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International (AAALAC, International).

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Lazarowski, L., Foster, M.L., Gruen, M.E. et al. Olfactory discrimination and generalization of ammonium nitrate and structurally related odorants in Labrador retrievers. Anim Cogn 18, 1255–1265 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-015-0894-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-015-0894-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation