Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Understanding the concept of a reflective surface: Can sheep improve navigational ability through the use of a mirror?

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Animal Cognition Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Mirror image-induced stimulation and the ability to use the mirror to improve navigational ability for the purpose of object location are considered measures of animal cognitive ability. The purpose of this study was to assess these cognitive abilities in sheep (Ovis aries) as part of a larger programme profiling the cognitive ability of this animal species. Three separate groups of sheep [(n = 29); 10 Welsh Mountain, 8 Norfolk Horned and 11 Borderdale] were trained (≥80 % criterion) to locate a salient object (yellow bucket containing cereal-based food) in one of two possible positions, from one of two possible starting points. Each group of sheep was then divided into two sub-groups. One sub-group was exposed to a mirror over a period of 15 days (mirror exposed), whilst the other group remained mirror naïve. All animals were then retested within the choice maze using the mirror, where two out of the possible four bucket positions were now ‘apparent’ (as reflections in the mirror), in order to assess whether mirror-exposed animals had a more accurate representation of the real bucket position. Sheep exhibited two out of the three archetypal stages of mirror-induced behaviour, namely social/exploratory and contingency behaviour, with differences existing between breeds. Welsh Mountain sheep spent significantly more time fixating on the self-image and touching the self-image with their muzzle than the other two breeds. During the test phase, no overall differences in performance were observed between the mirror-exposed and mirror-naïve groups. However, Welsh Mountain sheep did perform significantly more correct responses overall, compared to the other two breeds. Although the data did not convincingly demonstrate that sheep could use a reflective surface to improve their navigational ability, the observed differences between groups suggests that some breeds of sheep may demonstrate better navigational ability as well as having a greater engagement with the self-image than others.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Amsterdam B (1972) Mirror self-image reactions before the age 2. Dev Psychobiol 5:297–305

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson JR (1986) Mirror-mediated finding of hidden food by monkeys (Macaca tonkeana and Macaca fascicularis). J Comp Psychol 100:237–242

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson JR, Gallup GG (2011) Do rhesus monkeys recognize themselves in mirrors? Am J Primatol 73:603–606

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bard KA, Todd BK, Bernier C, Love J, Leavens DA (2006) Self-awareness in human and chimpanzee infants: what is measured and what is meant by the mark and mirror test? Infancy 9:191–219

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boissy A, Aubert A, Desire L, Greiveldinger L, Delval E, Veissier I (2011) Cognitive sciences to relate ear postures to emotions in sheep. Anim Welfare 20(1):47–56

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Broom DM, Sena H, Moynihan KL (2009) Pigs learn what a mirror image represents and use it to obtain information. Anim Behav 78:1037–1041

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallup GG (1970) Chimpanzees: self-recognition. Science 167:86–87

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gieling ET, Mijdam E, van der Staay FJ, Bordquist RE (2014) Lack of mirror use by pigs to locate food. Appl Anim Behav Sci 154:22–30

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harding EJ, Paul ES, Mendl M (2004) Animal behavior: cognitive bias and affective state. Nature 427(6972):312

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Itakura S (1987) Mirror guided behavior in Japanese monkeys (Muscata-Fuscata-fuscata). Primates 28:149–161

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King AJ, Wilson AM, Wilshin SD, Lowe J, Haddadi H, Hailes S, Morton AJ (2012) Selfish-herd behaviour of sheep under threat. Curr Biol 22:R561–R562

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence AB, Woodgush DGM (1988) Home-range behavior and social-organization of Scottish Blackface sheep. J Appl Ecol 25:25–40

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lynch JJ, Hinch GN, Adams DB (1992) The behaviour of sheep: biological principles and implications for production. C.A.B. International, Wallingford

    Google Scholar 

  • Masson MEJ (2011) A tutorial on a practical Bayesian alternative to null-hypothesis significance testing. Behav Res Methods 43(3):679–690

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Medina FS, Taylor AH, Hunt GR, Gray RD (2011) New Caledonian crows’ responses to mirrors. Anim Behav 82:981–993

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Michelena P, Gautrais J, Gerard JF, Bon R, Deneubourg JL (2008) Social cohesion in groups of sheep: effect of activity level, sex composition and group size. Appl Anim Behav Sci 112:81–93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Michelena P, Sibbald AM, Erhard HW, McLeod JE (2009) Effects of group size and personality on social foraging: the distribution of sheep across patches. Behav Ecol 20:145–152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morton AJ, Avanzo L (2011) Executive decision-making in the domestic sheep. PLoS ONE 6:e15752

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morton AJ, Howland DS (2013) Large animal models of Huntington’s disease. J Hunt Dis 2:3–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Piggins D, Phillips CJC (1996) The eye of the domesticated sheep with implications for vision. Anim Sci 62:301–308

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plotnik JM, de Waal FBM, Moore D, Reiss D (2010) Self-recognition in the Asian elephant and future directions for cognitive research with elephants in zoological settings. Zoo Biol 29:179–191

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pokorna P, Hejcmanova P, Hejcman M, Pavlu V (2013) Activity time budget patterns of sheep and goats co-grazing on semi-natural species-rich dry grassland. Czech J Anim Sci 58:208–216

    Google Scholar 

  • Povinelli DJ (1989) Failure to find self-recognition in Asian elephants (elephas-maximus) in contrast to their use of mirror cues to discover hidden food. J Comp Psychol 103:122–131

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prior H, Schwarz A, Guentuerkuen O (2008) Mirror-induced behavior in the magpie (Pica pica): evidence of self-recognition. PLoS Biol 6:1642–1650

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raftery AE (1995) Bayesian model selection in social research. Sociol Method 25:111–163

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reiss D, Marino L (2001) Mirror self-recognition in the bottlenose dolphin: a case of cognitive convergence. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA Stat Am 98:5937–5942

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zar JH (1996) Biostatistical analysis, 3rd edn. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank Calum Frost for his invaluable work training and testing the sheep. This work was funded by CHDI Inc.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Downing Place, Cambridge, CB2 3DY, UK

    S. D. McBride, N. Perentos & A. J. Morton

Authors
  1. S. D. McBride
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. N. Perentos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. A. J. Morton
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to S. D. McBride.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

McBride, S.D., Perentos, N. & Morton, A.J. Understanding the concept of a reflective surface: Can sheep improve navigational ability through the use of a mirror?. Anim Cogn 18, 361–371 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-014-0807-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-014-0807-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation