Abstract
Visual perspective taking (VPT), an understanding of what others can see, is a prerequisite for theory of mind (ToM). While VPT in apes is proven, its presence in monkeys is much-debated. Several different paradigms have been developed to test its existence, but all face interpretational problems since results can be explained by simpler cognitive mechanisms than VPT. Therefore, we adjusted one method where two individuals compete for access to food, visible or invisible for the dominant competitor, to preclude cognitively simpler mechanisms. The subordinate long-tailed macaques tested, selected significantly more often the food item invisible than the item visible to the dominant. In most trials, subjects retrieved only one food item and preferred the invisible food item. Surprisingly, they occasionally adopted an alternative strategy to obtain both food items, by first choosing the visible, most at risk food item. Faster animals adopted this strategy proportionally more often than slower ones. Contrary to previous research, our results cannot be explained by simpler cognitive mechanisms, since behavioural reading was prevented by a one-way mirror between the competitor and the food, and accessibility was equal to both food items. This is the first unequivocal evidence of VPT in a monkey species, suggesting that this precursor to ToM is an evolutionarily conserved capacity present in monkeys, apes and humans.
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Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Maaike Berdowski for her assistance during the experiment and the animal caretakers for their care for the monkeys. We thank two anonymous referees for their thoughtful comments and Han de Vries for statistical advice. This research was funded by the Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, the Netherlands.
Ethical statement
This study was carried out in accordance with the legal requirements of the Netherlands. This research was approved by the Animal Ethical Committee of the Biomedical Primate Research Centre. Subjects were trained by positive reinforcement to be temporarily separated from their group members in part of their home cage. Outside testing hours, monkeys were fed monkey chow accomplished with fruit, vegetables or bread in front of the test cage. Water was available at libitum. Monkeys received permanent environmental enrichment, and extra enrichment containing food was provided every other week (Vernes and Louwerse 2010).
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The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Overduin-de Vries, A.M., Spruijt, B.M. & Sterck, E.H.M. Long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) understand what conspecifics can see in a competitive situation. Anim Cogn 17, 77–84 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-013-0639-6
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-013-0639-6