Abstract
The characteristics of groundwater systems and groundwater contamination in Finland, Norway and Iceland are presented, as they relate to outbreaks of disease. Disparities among the Nordic countries in the approach to providing safe drinking water from groundwater are discussed, and recommendations are given for the future. Groundwater recharge is typically high in autumn or winter months or after snowmelt in the coldest regions. Most inland aquifers are unconfined and therefore vulnerable to pollution, but they are often without much anthropogenic influence and the water quality is good. In coastal zones, previously emplaced marine sediments may confine and protect aquifers to some extent. However, the water quality in these aquifers is highly variable, as the coastal regions are also most influenced by agriculture, sea-water intrusion and urban settlements resulting in challenging conditions for water abstraction and supply. Groundwater is typically extracted from Quaternary deposits for small and medium municipalities, from bedrock for single households, and from surface water for the largest cities, except for Iceland, which relies almost entirely on groundwater for public supply. Managed aquifer recharge, with or without prior water treatment, is widely used in Finland to extend present groundwater resources. Especially at small utilities, groundwater is often supplied without treatment. Despite generally good water quality, microbial contamination has occurred, principally by norovirus and Campylobacter, with larger outbreaks resulting from sewage contamination, cross-connections into drinking water supplies, heavy rainfall events, and ingress of polluted surface water to groundwater.
Résumé
Les caractéristiques des systèmes aquifères et la contamination des eaux souterraines en Finlande, Norvège et Islande, sont présentées, en lien avec des épidémies de maladies. Les disparités entre ces pays nordiques quant à l’approche utilisée en matière d’approvisionnement en eau potable à partir des eaux souterraines sont discutées, et des recommandations sont formulées pour le futur. La recharge des aquifères est habituellement élevée durant les mois d’automne ou d’hiver ou encore après la fonte des neiges dans les régions les plus froides. La plupart des aquifères continentaux sont libres et donc vulnérables aux pollutions, mais cependant ils sont souvent dépourvus de pressions anthropiques et la qualité de l’eau est bonne. Dans les zones côtières, les sédiments marins déposés précédemment peuvent rendre les aquifères captifs et les protéger dans une certaine mesure. Toutefois, la qualité d’eau de ces aquifères est très variable, du fait que les régions côtières sont également les plus influencées par l’agriculture, les intrusions d’eau de mer et les agglomérations urbaines, ce qui entraîne des conditions difficiles d’exploitation et d’approvisionnement en eau. Les eaux souterraines sont classiquement prélevées dans les dépôts sédimentaires du Quaternaire pour les municipalités de petite et moyenne dimension, dans le socle pour les habitations isolées, et dans les eaux de surface pour les plus grandes villes, à l’exception de l’Islande, où l’alimentation en eau potable repose presque entièrement sur les eaux souterraines. La gestion des aquifères par recharge artificielle, avec ou sans traitement préalable de l’eau, est largement répandue en Finlande afin d’accroître les ressources actuelles d’eau souterraine. En particulier pour les petits services d’adduction, l’eau souterraine est souvent distribuée sans traitement. Malgré la bonne qualité de l’eau en général, des contaminations microbiennes sont principalement causées par des norovirus et la bactérie Campylobacter, avec des épidémies plus importantes résultant d’une contamination par des eaux usées, des interactions avec les réseaux de distribution de l’eau potable, des événements pluvieux intenses, et des infiltrations d’eaux de surface contaminées vers les eaux souterraines.
Resumen
Se presentan las características de los sistemas de agua subterránea y de su contaminación en Finlandia, Noruega e Islandia, así como su relación con brotes de enfermedades. Se discuten las disparidades entre los países nórdicos en cuanto al enfoque para proveer agua potable segura a partir del agua subterránea y se dan recomendaciones para el futuro. La recarga de agua subterránea suele ser alta en los meses de otoño o invierno o después de la deshielo en las regiones más frías. La mayoría de los acuíferos continentales no están confinados y por lo tanto son vulnerables a la contaminación, pero a menudo carecen de mucha influencia antropogénica y la calidad del agua es buena. En las zonas costeras, los sedimentos marinos previamente emplazados pueden estar confinados y proteger hasta cierto punto a los acuíferos. Sin embargo, la calidad del agua en estos acuíferos es muy variable, ya que las regiones costeras también están más influenciadas por la agricultura, la intrusión de agua de mar y los asentamientos urbanos, resultando condiciones desafiantes para la captación y suministro de agua. El agua subterránea se extrae típicamente a partir de los depósitos del Cuaternario en los municipios pequeños y medianos, a partir de la roca de base en los hogares unifamiliares, y a partir del agua superficial en las ciudades más grandes, a excepción de Islandia, que depende casi enteramente de agua subterránea para el suministro público. La gestión de la recarga de acuíferos, con o sin tratamiento previo de agua, es ampliamente utilizada en Finlandia para extender los recursos actuales del agua subterránea. Especialmente en pequeñas empresas de servicios públicos, a menudo se suministra agua subterránea sin tratamiento. A pesar de la buena calidad del agua en general, la contaminación microbiana ha ocurrido, principalmente por norovirus y Campylobacter, con los brotes más grandes como resultado de la contaminación a partir de las aguas residuales, conexiones cruzadas en el suministro de agua potable, fuertes lluvias y el ingreso de agua superficial contaminada al agua subterránea.
摘要
本文展示了芬兰、挪威和冰岛地下水系统和地下水污染的特征,因为这些特征与疾病的爆发密切相关。论述了北欧国家在从地下水中提供安全饮用水方法中各国之间的差异,并为将来提供了建议。地下水补给在秋天和冬季或者最寒冷地区雪融之后通常很高。最内陆含水层为非承压含水层,因此,容易受到污染,但一般没有很大的人为影响,水质很好。在沿海地区,先前沉积的海相沉积物可能承压,在一定程度上保护含水层。然而,这些含水层的水质变化很大,因为沿海地区也受到农业、海水入侵和城市定居点极大影响,导致抽水和供水面临挑战。通常从第四纪沉积层中抽取地下水用于中小城市,从基岩层抽水用于家庭以及从地表水抽取用于最大的城市,冰岛是个例外,冰岛几乎完全依赖地下水用于公共供水。管理的含水层补给,无论是否经过水处理,在芬兰得到广泛应用,目的就是扩大目前的地下水资源。特别是在小的公共事业上,通常提供的地下水没有经过处理。尽管总的来说水质良好,但已经发生过微生物污染,主要是由诺洛病毒和弯曲杆菌导致的,还由于下水道污染、连通到饮用水供水、暴雨事件及污染的地表水进入地下水引起过较大的爆发。
Resumo
As características dos sistemas de águas subterrâneas e contaminações subterrâneas na Finlândia, Noruega e Islândia são apresentadas, uma vez que estão relacionados com surtos de doenças. Disparidades entre os países Nórdicos na abordagem de fornecimento de água potável segura dos aquíferos são discutidas e fornecidas recomendações futuras. A recarga das águas subterrâneas é tipicamente mais elevada nos meses de outono ou inverno, ou após o desgelo das regiões mais frias. A maior parte dos aquíferos do interior são confinados e, portanto, vulneráveis à poluição, mas existe pouca interferência antrópica e qualidade da água é considerada boa. Na zona costeira, os sedimentos marinhos previamente depositados podem confinar e proteger os aquíferos até certo ponto. Entretanto, a qualidade da água nesses aquíferos é altamente variável, uma vez que as regiões costeiras também são mais influenciadas pela agricultura, intrusão de água salina e assentamentos urbanos, resultando em condições desafiadoras para a captação e abastecimento de água. As águas subterrâneas são comumente extraídas de depósitos Quaternários para pequenas e médias cidades, do maciço rochoso para residências individuais, e das águas superficiais para grandes cidades, com exceção da Islândia, que depende quase inteiramente das águas subterrâneas para abastecimento público. O gerenciamento da recarga de aquíferos, com ou sem tratamento prévio da água, é amplamente utilizado na Finlândia para preservar os recursos hídricos. Especialmente em pequenas cidades, a água subterrânea é fornecida sem tratamento. Apesar da boa qualidade da água de um modo geral, a contaminação microbiana tem ocorrido principalmente por norovírus e Campylobacter, com surtos maiores resultantes da contaminação de esgotos, ligações cruzadas no abastecimento de água potável, eventos de chuvas intensas e intrusão de águas superficiais poluídas nas águas subterrâneas.
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Kløve, B., Kvitsand, H.M.L., Pitkänen, T. et al. Overview of groundwater sources and water-supply systems, and associated microbial pollution, in Finland, Norway and Iceland. Hydrogeol J 25, 1033–1044 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-017-1552-x
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-017-1552-x