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The Saharides: Turkic-type orogeny in Afro-Arabia

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Abstract

A major new Neoproterozoic orogenic system belonging to the larger Pan-African deformational realm, the Saharides, is described in North Africa, which formed from about 900 to 500 Ma ago. The Saharides, a Turkic-type orogenic complex similar to the Altaids of central and northwestern Asia, involved major subduction-accretion complexes occupying almost the entire Arabian Shield and much of Egypt and the small inliers of such complexes farther west to, and including, the Ahaggar mountains. These complexes are formed at least by half from juvenile material representing at least 5 million km2 new continental crust formed during the Neoproterozoic. The Saharides involved no continental collisions until the very end of their history, but evolved by subduction and strike-slip stacking of arc material mainly by pre-collisional coast-wise transport of arc fragments shaved off the Congo/Tanzania cratonic nucleus in a manner very similar to the development of the Nipponides in east Asia, parts of the North American Cordillera and the Altaids. The entire Sahara is shown to be underlain by a double orocline much like the Hercynian double orocline in western Europe and northwestern Africa and not by an hypothetical ‘Saharan Metacraton’. The method here followed may be a fruitful procedure to untangle the structure of some of the Precambrian orogenic belts before life evolved sufficiently to make biostratigraphy feasible.

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Notes

  1. Quoted from Arthur J. Arberry’s impeccable, artful translation: see Arberry (1983, p 390).

  2. In this paper we write fig., with a lower case f when we cite a figure from the literature. While referring to our own figures, we write Fig. with a capital F.

  3. The earliest appearance of the term ‘Arabian Shield’ seems to be in 1937, as we have failed to find any reference to it predating Picard (1937). The term ‘Massif Arabo-Nubien’ was an invention of Pierre Lamare in his 1936 thesis (Lamare, 1936, p 60), but the concept goes all the way back to Fraas (1867). Both Fraas and Lamar compared the Red Sea with the Upper Rhine Rift, between the Vosges Mountains in France and the uplands of the Black Forest in Germany, to underline the former unity of the both shoulders of the Red Sea (Fraas, 1867, p 33; Lamare, 1936, p 16).

  4. The term ‘Algonkian’ (from the Algonquian or Algonkian tribes occupying much of southern and eastern Canada east of the Rocky Mountains and eastern United States) was introduced during a conference held at the office of the United States Geological Survey in Washington, D. C., on 28th to 31st January 1889 to establish regulations for the publication of the geological atlas sheets of the Survey (see Powell, 1890, p 66; Van Hise, 1892, p 493). Van Hise (1892, p 493; 1896, p 762) and Van Hise and Leith (1909, pp 32–41) clearly spelled out that Algonkian, as used by the United States Geological Survey, was of Proterozoic age. Then the term Algonkian also began to be used, inappropriately, outside North America as well, as a time term being considered equivalent to the now commonly-used Proterozoic. With the onset of isotopic dating of rocks, the United States Geological Survey found it advisable to drop the term and the 1932 Geological Map of the United States was its last major publication in which the term Algonkian was used (King, 1976, p 10). However, due to the usual conservatism of geological writers, Algonkian continued to be used almost into the sixties, especially in Europe.

  5. The name Ahaggar is the name given to the mountainous massif by the local people, also called the Ahaggar, a tribe of the Berbers. The Arabs call it Hoggar and some geologists refer to it as the Tuareg Shield, because its Precambrian crystalline body rises from under a mantle of Phanerozoic, mostly flat-lying to gently-dipping sedimentary rocks. Following the great geographer and ethnographer of the Sahara, Émile-Félix Gautier and The Times Comprehensive Atlas of the World (2011) we use Ahaggar here, as it is the original name of the massif given to it by its local inhabitants (cf. Gautier, 1926).

  6. Oued Saoura: an oued is a valley housing an intermittent stream in North Africa; local equivalent of wadi.

  7. The earlier 1:45,000,000-scale geological map of Africa by Georg Gürich (1887, Plate 13), an extremely versatile geologist who was one of the German pioneers of African geology, displays the geology only of the areas close to the coasts with the only exception of a strip along the western rift of the East African Rift System and a few spots in the Ahaggar and the Tibesti Massifs. He himself points out that in 1887 the time was not yet ripe to draw a general geological map of Africa (Gürich, 1887, p 257).

  8. See footnote 4 above.

  9. Recent field observations by John F. Dewey indicated that the Namaqua Belt is not an orogen, but a transtensional keirogen (John F. Dewey, personal communication, 2009).

  10. Kennedy either misremembered what he wrote the previous year or this is a deliberate misquotation by him to emphasise his later conviction, for he had written in 1964, as just quoted above, ‘One hesitates to employ the term “orogeny” as the processes involved appear to differ, in large part at least, from those identified with normal orogenic movements.’ (p. 48).

  11. Even under the immense, 22-km-thick, Bengal Fan in the Gulf of Bengal, Brune et al. (1992) showed that the sediment pile attained metamorphic grades to produce schists (the metamorphism may have reached upper greenschist grade) and thus acquired seismic velocities typical for the continental crust. Beneath this newly-made ‘continent’ there is still oceanic crust!

  12. Hypercollision is a term used mainly in the Francophone geological literature, but as it has been applied, according to the whim of the author, to almost any collision regardless of the state of deformation displayed (e.g., Eastern Alps, Himalaya, Pan-African), it is difficult to see where a ‘normal’ collision ends and a ‘hypercollision’ begins. It is particularly inappropriate for the Saharides, where evidence of any collision is so feeble.

  13. It is important to note here that the three types of regenerations Stille talks about in his paper (and elsewhere), i. e., the α, β and γ regenerations, do not lead to a quasicratonic state, but to an orthogeosynclinal state; even his ‘incomplete regenerations’ (Stille 1945, p 297) in which ‘initial magmatism’ does not occur, but ‘subsequent magmatism’ of the previous phase continues, do not lead to a quasicratonic state. However, by this time Stille had to make so many ad hoc adjustments to his fixist contractionist theory of global tectonics that his terms had begun to lose their usefulness, typical of what Imre Lakatos called a ‘degenerating scientific research programme’ one in which theory lags behind the facts (Lakatos, 1978, p 6).

  14. Scheinmann should be spelled as Sheynmann as in the original paper. That is how it appears in our reference list below.

  15. Κράτος in ancient Greek is the personification of strength. In Greek mythology as transmitted to us by Hesiod in his Theogony, he is one of the two sons of Styx (i.e., ‘hateful’), the daughter of Tethys and Okeanos. Kober (1921, p 8) called areas that could not be deformed by strong orogenies Kratogen (from Κράτος and -γενής: place of strength; literally where strength is born, located) and divided the earth’s lithosphere into three realms: Kratogens, Orogens and Geosynclines. Stille originally adopted Kober’s terminology, but in 1933 (published in 1936) introduced the shorter version, Kraton, for what Kober had called Kratogen. Kay (1947) anglicised this to craton.

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Acknowledgements

First, we thank Renaud Caby, for doing his best to keep us honest by supplying us with information and critique. We are also grateful to Jean-Paul Liégeois, who most generously supplied us with data on the Ahaggar Massif. Dan McKenzie informed us of the anomalously thin lithosphere under the entire Saharides. We also thank Wim Spakman for informative conversations on the seismic tomographic observations and their interpretation under the Sahara. Anke M. Friedrich gave us access to the rich map collection of the historical Department für Geo- und Umweltwissenschaften, Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München. Abdelrahman Khalifa, most kindly provided us with the 1:500,000 scale geological maps of Egypt during the difficult times of the pandemic. Mehran Basmenji and Müge Yazıcı digitised some of the geological maps we used. Attila Çiner informed us of the recent volcanological literature of Patagonia. We are most grateful to the personnel of the İTÜ Mustafa İnan Library for making it possible for us to use its great map collection during the pandemic, when the university was essentially closed. None of the persons named above can be held responsible for what is written in this paper. Its errors of omission and commission are entirely ours. N. Lom acknowledges NWO Vici Grant 865.17.001.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Maden Fakültesi, Jeoloji Mühendisliği Bölümü, Ayazağa, 34469, İstanbul, Turkey

    A. M. Celâl Şengör, Cengiz Zabcı & Gürsel Sunal

  2. İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Avrasya Yerbilimleri Enstitüsü, Ayazağa, 34469, İstanbul, Turkey

    A. M. Celâl Şengör

  3. Departement Aardwetenschappen, Universiteit Utrecht, Princetonlaan 8a, 3584 CB, Utrecht, The Netherlands

    Nalan Lom

  4. Soyak Göztepe Sitesi, B: 86/1511, Üsküdar 34700, İstanbul, Turkey

    Tayfun Öner

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  1. A. M. Celâl Şengör
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Correspondence to Nalan Lom.

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Dedicated to the memory of three great masters of African geology, Erich Krenkel (1880–1964), Conrad Kilian (1898–1950) and Kevin Charles Antony Burke (1929–2018).

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Şengör, A.M.C., Lom, N., Zabcı, C. et al. The Saharides: Turkic-type orogeny in Afro-Arabia. Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) 111, 2885–2924 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-021-02063-3

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