Abstract
The external envelope of wheat grain (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Isengrain) is a natural composite whose tissular and cellular heterogeneity constitute a significant barrier for enzymatic cell wall disassembly. To better understand the way in which the cell wall network and tissular organization hamper enzyme penetration, we have devised a strategy based on in situ visualization of an active and an inactive form of a xylanase in whole-wheat bran and in three micro-dissected layers (the outer bran, the inner bran and the aleurone layer). The main aims of this study were to (1) evaluate the role of cuticular layers as obstacles to enzyme diffusion, (2) assess the impact of the cell wall network on xylanase penetration, (3) highlight wall heterogeneity. To conduct this study, we created by in vitro mutagenesis a hydrolytically inactive xylanase that displayed full substrate binding ability, as demonstrated by the calculation of dissociation constants (Kd) using fluorescence titration. To examine enzyme penetration and action, immunocytochemical localization of the xylanases and of feebly substituted arabinoxylans (AXs) was performed following incubation of the bran layers, or whole bran with active and inactive isoforms of the enzyme for different time periods. The data obtained showed that the micro-dissected layers provided an increased accessible surface for the xylanase and that the enzyme-targeted cell walls were penetrated more quickly than those in intact bran. Examination of immunolabelling of xylanase indicated that the cuticle layers constitute a barrier for enzyme penetration in bran. Moreover, our data indicated that the cell wall network by itself physically restricts enzyme penetration. Inactive xylanase penetration was much lower than that of the active form, whose penetration was facilitated by the concomitant depletion of AXs in enzyme-sensitive cell walls.
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- AL:
-
Micro-dissected aleurone layer
- DiFA:
-
Diferulic acid
- EM:
-
Electron microscopy
- FA:
-
Ferulic acid
- IB:
-
Inner bran
- LM:
-
Light microscopy
- OB:
-
Outer bran
- UV:
-
Ultraviolet
- WB:
-
Wheat bran
- XYL11-WT:
-
(1→ 4)-β-endoxylanase (EC 3.2.1.8)
- XYL11-INAC:
-
Inactive catalytic mutant of XYL11-WT
References
Adams EL, Kroon PA, Williamson G, Gilbert HJ, Morris VJ (2004) Inactivated enzymes as probes of the structure of arabinoxylans as observed by atomic force microscopy. Carbohydr Res 339:579–590
Antoine C, Peyron S, Mabille F, Lapierre C, Bouchet B, Abecassis J, Rouau X (2003) Individual contribution of grain outer layers and their cell wall structure to the mechanical properties of wheat bran. J Agric Food Chem 51:2026–2033
Beaugrand J, Crônier D, Debeire P, Chabbert B (2004a) Arabinoxylan and hydroxycinnamate content of wheat bran in relation to endoxylanase susceptibility. J Cereal Sci 40:223–230
Beaugrand J, Chambat G, Wong V, Goubet F, Rémond C, Paës G, Benamrouche S, Debeire P, O’Donohue M, Chabbert B (2004b) Impact and efficiency of GH10 and GH11 thermostable endoxylanases on wheat bran and alkali-extractable arabinoxylans. Carbohydr Res 339:2529–2540
Beaugrand J, Reis D, Guillon F, Debeire P, Chabbert B (2004c) Xylanase-mediated hydrolysis of wheat bran. Evidence for subcellular heterogeneity of cell walls. Int J Plant Sci 165:553–563
Benamrouche S, Crônier D, Debeire P, Chabbert B (2002) A chemical and histological study on the effect of (1→ 4)-β-endo-xylanase treatment on wheat bran. J Cereal Sci 36:253–260
Brillouet JM, Joseleau JP (1987) Investigation of the structure of a heteroxylan from the outer pericarp (beeswing bran) of wheat kernel. Carbohydr Res 159:109–126
Chanliaud E, Saulnier L, Thibault J-F (1995) Alkaline extraction and characterization of heteroxylans from maize bran. J Cereal Sci 21:195–203
Chesson A, Gardner PT, Wood TJ (1997) Cell wall porosity and available surface area of wheat straw and wheat grain fractions. J Sci Food Agric 75:289–295
Daniel G, Nilsson T, Pettersson B (1989) Intra- and extracellular localization of lignin peroxidase during the degradation of solid wood and wood fragments by Phanerochaete chrysosporium by using transmission electron microscopy and immuno-gold labeling. Appl Environ Microbiol 54:871–881
Davies GJ, Henrissat B (1995) Structures and mechanisms of glycosyl hydrolases. Structure 3:853–859
Debeire-Gosselin M, Loonis M, Samain E, Debeire P (1992) Purification and properties of a 22 kDa endoxylanase excreted by a new strain of thermophilic Bacillus. In Visser J, Beldman G, Kusters-van Someren MA, Voragen AGJ (eds) Xylans and xylanases. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 463–466
Dervilly G, Saulnier L, Roger P, Thibault J-F (2000) Isolation of homogeneous fractions from wheat water-soluble arabinoxylans. Influence of the structure on their macromolecular characteristics. J Agric Food Chem 48:270–278
Dervilly-Pinel G, Tran V, Saulnier L (2004) Investigation of the distribution of arabinose residues on the xylan backbone of water-soluble arabinoxylans from wheat flour. Carbohydr Polym 55:171–177
Evers T, Millar S (2002) Cereal grain structure and development: some implication for quality. J Cereal Sci 36:261–284
Evers AD, Reed M (1988) Some novel observations by scanning electron microscopy on the seed coat and nucellar layer of the mature wheat grain. Cereal Chem 65:81–85
Fincher GB, Stone BA (1986) Cell walls and their components in cereal grain technology. In: Pomeranz Y (eds) Advances in cereal sciences. AACC, St Paul, vol 8, pp 207–295
Fulcher RG, O’Brien TP, Lee JW (1972) Studies on the aleurone layer, conventional and fluorescence microscopy of the cell wall with emphasis on phenol-carbohydrate complexes in wheat. Aust J Biol Sci 25:23–34
Guillon F, Tranquet O, Quillien L, Utille JP, Ordaz Ortiz JJ, Saulnier L (2004) Generation of polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies against arabinoxylans and their use for immunocytochemical localization of arabinoxylans in cell walls of the wheat grain endosperm. J Cereal Sci 40:167–182
Harris GW, Pickersgill RW, Connerton I, Debeire P, Touzel J-P, Breton C, Pérez S (1997) Structural basis of the properties of an industrially relevant thermophilic xylanase. Proteins 29:77–86
Hatfield RD, Ralph J, Grabber JH (1999) Cell wall cross-linking by ferulates in grasses. J Sci Food Agric 79:403–407
Havukainen R, Törrönen A, Laitinen T, Rouvinen J (1996) Covalent binding of three epoxyalkyl xylosides to the active site of endo-1,4-xylanase II from Trichoderma reesei. Biochem 35:9617–9624
Hegde SS, Kumar AR, Ganesh KN, Swaminathan CP, Khan MI (1998) Thermodynamics of ligand (substrate/end product) binding to endoxylanase from Chainia sp. (NCL-82-5-1): isothermal calorimetry and fluorescence titration studies. Biochim Biophys Acta 1388:93–100
Henrissat B (1991) A classification of glycosyl hydrolases based on amino acid sequence similarities. Biochem J 280:309–316
Hildèn L, Daniel G, Johansson G (2003) Use of a fluorescent, carbohydrate-binding module from Phanerochaete chrysosporium Cel7D for studying wood cell wall ultrastructure. Biotechnol Lett 25:553–558
Kidby DK, Davidson DJ (1973) A convenient ferricyanide estimation of reducing sugars in the nanomole range. Anal Biochem 55:321–325
Kolattukudy P (1980) Biopolyester membranes of plants: cutin and suberin. Science 208:990–999
Koshland DE (1953) Stereochemistry and the mechanism of enzymatic reactions. Biol Rev 28:416–436
Lempereur I, Rouau X, Abecassis J (1997) Genetic and agronomic variation in arabinoxylan and ferulic acid contents of durum wheat (Triticum durum L.) grain and its milling fractions. J Cereal Sci 25:1–8
Lequart C, Nuzillard J, Kurek B, Debeire P (1999) Hydrolysis of wheat bran and straw by an endoxylanase: production and structural characterization of cinnamoyl-oligosaccharides. Carbohydr Res 319:102–111
Matzke K, Riederer M (1990) The composition of the cutin of the caryopses and leaves of Triticum aestivum L. Planta 182:461–466
McCann MC, Wells B, Roberts K (1990) Direct visualisation of cross-links in the primary cell wall. J Cell Sci 96:323–334
Morrisson IN, Kuo J, O’Brien TP (1976) Histochemistry and fine structure of developing wheat aleurone cells. Planta 123:105–116
Reis D, Vian B, Roland JC (1993) Cellulose-glucuronoxylans and plant cell wall structure. Micron 25:171–187
Rémond-Zilliox C, Debeire P, Reis D, Vian B (1997) Immunolocalization of a purified xylanase during hydrolysis of wheat straw stems. Int J Plant Sci 158:769–777
Samain E, Debeire P, Debeire-Gosselin M, Touzel J-P (1991) Xylanase, souches de Bacillus productrices de xylanases et leurs utilisations. Patent FR-9101191
Samain E, Touzel J-P, Brodel B, Debeire P (1992) Isolation of a thermophilic bacterium producing high levels of xylanase. In Visser J, Beldman G, Kusters-van Someren MA, Voragen AGJ (eds) Xylans and xylanases. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 467–470
Schooneveld-Bergmans MEF, Beldman G, Voragen AGJ (1999) Structural features of (Glucurono)arabinoxylans extracted from wheat bran by barium hydroxide. J Cereal Sci 29:63–75
Schreiber L, Hartmann K, Skrabs M, Zeier J (1999) Apoplastic barriers in roots: chemical composition of endodermal and hypodermal cell walls. J Exp Bot 50:1267–1280
Shetlar MR (1948) Chemical study of the mature wheat kernel by means of the microscope. Cereal Chem 25:99–110
Sidhu G, Withers SG, Nguyen NT, McIntosh LP, Ziser L, Brayer GD (1999) Sugar ring distorsion in the glycosyl-enzyme intermediate of a family G/11 xylanase. Biochemistry 38:5346–5354
Srebotnik E, Messner K, Foisner R (1988) Penetrability of white rot-degraded pine wood by the lignin peroxydase of Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Appl Environ Microbiol 54:2608–2614
Stenvert NL, Kingswood K (1976) An autoradiographic demonstration of the penetration of water into wheat during tempering. Cereal Chem 53:141–149
Tervilä-Wilo A, Parkkonen T, Morgan A, Hopeakoski-Nurminen M, Poutanen K, Heikkinen P, Autio K (1996) In vitro digestion of wheat microstructure with xylanase and cellulase from Trichoderma reesei. J Cereal Sci 24:215–225
Thimm JC, Burritt DJ, Ducker WA, Melton LD (2000) Celery (Apium graveolens L.) parenchyma cell walls examined by atomic force microscopy: effect of dehydration on cellulose microfibrils. Planta 212:25–32
Törrönen A, Harkki A, Rouvinen J (1994) Three-dimensional structure of endo-1,4-β-xylanase II from Trichoderma reesei: two conformational states in the active site. EMBO J 13:2493–2501
Wakarchuk WW, Robert L, Campbell RL, Sung WL, Davoodi J, Yaguchi M (1994) Mutational and crystallographic analyses of the active site residues of the Bacillus circulans xylanase. Protein Sci 3:467–475
Willats WG, Steele-King CG, Mc Carney L, Orfila C, Marcus SE, Knox JP (2000) Making and using antibody probes to study plant cell walls. Plant Physiol Biochem 38:27–36
Acknowledgements
We gratefully thank Dr. Fabienne Guillon (URPOI, INRA, Nantes) for the gift of anti (1→ 4)-β-unsubstituted xylan antiserum. This work was supported by a grant from the Champagne-Ardenne regional authorities. Electron microscopy observations were performed at the Centre de microscopie électronique à transmission conventionnelle of University of Paris VI, France.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Beaugrand, J., Paës, G., Reis, D. et al. Probing the cell wall heterogeneity of micro-dissected wheat caryopsis using both active and inactive forms of a GH11 xylanase. Planta 222, 246–257 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00425-005-1538-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00425-005-1538-0