Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The interplay between propelling efficiency, hydrodynamic position and energy cost of front crawl in 8 to 19-year-old swimmers

  • Original Article
  • Published:
European Journal of Applied Physiology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate the interplay between the arm stroke efficiency (an index of propelling efficiency, η P) and the static and dynamic position in water (indexes of hydrodynamic resistance, W d) in determining the energy cost of front crawl (C) during a swimmer’s growth. These three parameters are indeed related by the following equation: \( C = W_{{\text{d}}} /(\eta _{{\text{P}}} \cdot\eta _{{\text{o}}} ) \) where η o is the overall efficiency of swimming. The experiments were carried out on 72 swimmers (38 M and 34 F; 8–19 years) who were asked to swim at 1 m s−1. The static position in water was assessed by measuring the underwater torque (T′); the dynamic position in water by measuring the projected frontal area (A eff). The ratio between the average values of the eldest to youngest class of age was 3.84 and 2.27 for T′, 2.13 and 1.68 for A eff, and 1.13 and 1.24 for η P (in M and F, respectively). The increase in T′ and in A eff was larger than the increase in efficiency suggesting that, in this age range, C should increase, the more so in M than F. Indeed, C increased by 1.58 in male and 1.17 in female swimmers. Based on the values of C and η P (and assuming a constant value of η o) it is possible to estimate that, in this age range, W d increases by about 1.97 in male and 1.32 in female swimmers, an increase which is proportional to the observed increase in A eff.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alexander R McN (1983) Motion in fluids. In: Animal mechanics. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, pp 183–233

  • Capelli C, Zamparo P, Cigalotto A, Francescato MP, Soule RG, Termin B, Pendergast DR, di Prampero PE (1995) Bioenergetics and biomechanics of front crawl swimming. J Appl Physiol 78:674–679

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chatard JC, Bourgoin B, Lacour JR (1990a) Passive drag is still a good evaluator of swimming aptitude. Eur J Appl Physiol 59:399–404

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chatard JC, Lavoie JM, Lacour JR (1990b) Analysis of determinants of swimming economy in front crawl. Eur J Appl Physiol 61:88–92

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chatard JC, Lavoie JM, Lacour JR (1991) Energy cost of front crawl swimming in women. Eur J Appl Physiol 63:12–16

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clarys JP (1979) Human morphology and hydrodynamics. In: Terauds J, Bedingfield EW (eds) Swimming III. University Park Press, Baltimore, pp 3–41

    Google Scholar 

  • Costill DL, Kovalesky J, Porter D, Kirwan J, Fielding R, King D (1985) Energy expenditure during front crawl swimming: predicting success in middle distance events. Int J Sport Med 6:266–270

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deshodt VJ, Arsac LM, Rouard AH (1999) Relative contribution of arms and legs in humans to propulsion in 25 m sprint front crawl swimming. Eur J Appl Physiol 80:192–199

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • di Prampero PE (1986) The energy cost of human locomotion on land and in water. Int J Sports Med 7:55–72

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haycock GB, Schwartz GJ, Wisotsky DH (1978) Geometric method for measuring body surface area: a height weight formula validated in infants, children and adults. J Pediatr 93:62–66

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hollander AP, De Groot G, Van Ingen Schenau GJ, Kahman R, Toussaint HM (1988) Contribution of the legs to propulsion in front crawl swimming. In: Ungherects BE, Wilkie K, Reischle K (eds) Swimming Science V. Human Kinetics, Champaign, pp 39–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Kjendlie PL, Stallman RK, Gunderson JS (2004a) Passive and active floating torque during swimming. Eur J Appl Physiol 93:75–81

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kjendlie PL, Stallman RK, Gunderson JS (2004b) Adults have lower stroke rate during sub maximal front crawl swimming than children. Eur J Appl Physiol 91:649–655

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kjendlie PL, Ingjer F, Madsen O, Stallman RK, Gunderson JS (2004c) Differences in the energy cost between children and adults during front crawl swimming. Eur J Appl Physiol 91:473–480

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kjendlie PL, Stallman RK (2008) Drag characteristics of competitive swimming children and adults. J Appl Biomech 24:35–42

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lavoie JM, Montpetit R (1986) Applied physiology of swimming. Sports Med 165:165–189

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lohman TG (1989) Assessment of body composition in children. Pediatr Exerc Sci 1:19–30

    Google Scholar 

  • McArdle WD, Katch FI, Katch VL (2007) Measurement of human energy expenditure. In: Exercise physiology; energy, nutrition and human performance. Lippincott, Philadelphia, pp 183−194

  • Montpetit R, Leger L, Lavoie JM, Cazorla G (1981) VO2 peak during free swimming using the backward extrapolation of the recovery curve. Eur J Appl Physiol 47:385–391

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Montpetit R, Lavoie JM, Cazorla G (1983) Aerobic energy cost of swimming the front crawl at high speed in international class and adolescent swimmers. In: Hollander PA, Huijing PA, de Groot G (eds) Biomechanics and medicine in swimming. Human Kinetics, Champaign, pp 228–234

    Google Scholar 

  • Montpetit R, Cazorla G, Lavoie JM (1988) Energy expenditure during front crawl swimming: a comparison between males and females. In: Ungherects BE, Wilkie K, Reischle K (eds) Swimming science V. Human Kinetics, Champaign, pp 229–236

    Google Scholar 

  • Mollendorf JC, Termin AC, Oppenheim E, Pendergast DR (2004) Effect of swim suit design on passive drag. Med Sci Sports Exerc 36:1029–1035

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pendergast DR, di Prampero PE, Craig AB, Wilson D, Rennie W (1977) Quantitative analysis of front crawl in men and women. J Appl Physiol 43:475–479

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pendergast DR, Zamparo P, di Prampero PE, Mollendorf J, Capelli C, Cerretelli C, Termin A, Craig A, Bushnell D, Paschke D (2003) Energy balance of human locomotion in water. Eur J Appl Physiol 90:377–386

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pendergast DR, Mollendorf J, Zamparo P, Termin A, Bushnell D, Paschke D (2005) The influence of drag on human locomotion in water. Undersea Hyperb Med 32:45–57

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pelayo P, Wille F, Sidney M, Berthoin S, Lavoie JM (1997) Swimming performance and stroking parameters in non skilled grammar pupils: relation with age, gender and some anthropometric characteristics. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 37:187–193

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Poujade B, Hautier CA, Rouard A (2002) Determinants of the energy cost of front crawl swimming in children. Eur J Appl Physiol 87:1–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rowland TW (1996) Developmental exercise physiology. Human kinetics, Champaign

    Google Scholar 

  • Slaugther MH, Lohman TG, Boileau RA, Horswill CA, Stillman RH, Van Loan MD, Bemben DA (1988) Skinfold equations for estimation of body fatness in children and youth. Hum Biol 60:709–723

    Google Scholar 

  • Toussaint HM (1990) Differences in propelling efficiency between competitive and triathlon swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 22:409–415

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Toussaint HM, de Looze M, van Rossem B, Leijdekkers M, Dignum H (1990) The effect of growth on drag in young swimmers. Int J Biomech 6:18–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Toussaint HM, Janssen T, Kluft M (1991) Effect of propelling surface size on the mechanics and energetics of front crawl swimming. J Biomech 24:205–211

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Toussaint HM, Beek PJ (1992) Biomechanics of competitive front crawl swimming. Sports Med 13:8–24

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Toussaint HM, Roos PE, Kolmogorov S (2004) The determination of drag in front crawl swimming. J Biomech 37(11):1655–1663

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Tilborg L, Daly D, Persyn U (1982) The influence of some somatic factors on passive drag, gravity and buoyancy forces in competitive swimmers. In: Hollander PA, Huijing PA, de Groot G (eds) Biomechanics and medicine in swimming. Human Kinetics, Champaign, pp 207–214

    Google Scholar 

  • Vorontsov A, Rumyanstev VA (2000) Resistive forces in swimming. In: Zatsiorsky VM (ed) Biomechanics in sport: performance enhancement and injury prevention. Blackwell, Oxford, pp 184–204

    Google Scholar 

  • Vorontsov A, Binevsky D (2003) Swimming speed, stroke rate and stroke length during maximal 100 m free style of boys 11–16 years of age. In: Chatard JC (ed) Biomechanics and medicine in swimming IX. Publications de l’Université de Saint Etienne, Saint Etienne, pp 195–200

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson B, Thorp R (2003) Active drag in swimming. In: Chatard JC (ed) Biomechanics and medicine in swimming IX. Publications de l’Université de Saint Etienne, Saint Etienne, pp 15–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Yanai T (2001) Rotational effect of buoyancy in front crawl: does it really cause the legs to sink? J Biomech 34:235–243

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zamparo P, Capelli C, Termin B, Pendergast DR, di Prampero PE (1996a) Effects of the underwater torque on the energy cost, drag and efficiency of front crawl swimming. Eur J Appl Physiol 73:195–201

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zamparo P, Antonutto G, Capelli C, Francescato MP, Girardis M, Sangoi R, Soule RG, Pendergast DR (1996b) Effects of body size, body density, gender and growth on underwater torque. Scand J Med Sci Sports 6:273–280

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zamparo P, Capelli C, Cautero M, Di Nino A (2000) Energy cost of front crawl swimming at supra maximal speeds and underwater torque in young swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol 83:487–491

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zamparo P, Pendergast DR, Termin B, Minetti AE (2002) How fins affect the economy and efficiency of human swimming. J Exp Biol 205:2665–2676

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zamparo P, Pendergast DR, Mollendorf J, Termin B, Minetti AM (2005) An energy balance of front crawl. Eur J Appl Physiol 94:134–144

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zamparo P (2006) Effects of age and gender on the propelling efficiency of the arm stroke. Eur J Appl Physiol 97:52–58

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank all the swimmers and their coaches for their patience and kind cooperation, and we are grateful to Prof. P. E. di Prampero for his useful suggestions in revising the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Dipartimento di Scienze Neurologiche e della Visione, Facoltà di Scienze Motorie, Università di Verona, via Casorati 43, 37141, Verona, Italy

    P. Zamparo

  2. Corso di Laurea in Scienze Motorie, Università di Udine, Gemona del Friuli, 33013, Udine, Italy

    P. Zamparo, S. Lazzer, C. Antoniazzi, S. Cedolin, R. Avon & C. Lesa

Authors
  1. P. Zamparo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. S. Lazzer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. C. Antoniazzi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. S. Cedolin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. R. Avon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. C. Lesa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to P. Zamparo.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Zamparo, P., Lazzer, S., Antoniazzi, C. et al. The interplay between propelling efficiency, hydrodynamic position and energy cost of front crawl in 8 to 19-year-old swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol 104, 689–699 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-008-0822-7

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-008-0822-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation