Abstract
Street dust samples were collected from 31 sampling sites in urban area of Chengdu. The distribution characters of OPEs were analyzed in line with functional districts and industrial layout of the city. The results showed that the detection frequency was tris(2-carboxyethyl) phosphine (TCEP), trichloropropyl phosphate (TCPP), triphenyl phosphate (TPhP), and tributoxyethyl phosphate (TBEP) (100%) > tris(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate (TEHP) (93.5%) > tri-n-butyl phosphate (TnBP) (83.9%) > tridichloropropyl phosphate (TDCPP) (74.2%). The ∑7OPEs concentrations ranged from 94.0 to 1484.6 ng/g (mean 512.9 ± 417.5 ng/g), and TBEP was the predominant pollutant, accounting for 27.9% of the ∑7OPEs. The highest concentrations were observed in the center, west, and northwest sides of the city. Besides, compared with outer area, the higher concentration in the 1st Ring Road reflected that emissions of OPEs might be associated with the population and consumption of commercial products. The correlations between monomers were statistically significant (p < 0.05) for TnBP/TCPP (p = 0.002), TCEP/TCPP (p = 0.026), and TCEP/TPhP (p = 0.033). The exposure level in adults was 0.11 ng/(kg bw day), and in children was 0.20 ng/(kg bw day) while hand-to-mouth was the primary mode of transmission. The Risk Quotients (RQs) of OPEs were 5.35 × 10−10–1.46 × 10−5 and 4.99 × 10−10–2.82 × 10−5 for adults and children respectively, with no potential risk.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ali N, Van DEN, Dirtu AC, Neels H, Covaci A (2012) Assessment of human exposure to indoor organic contaminants via dust ingestion in Pakistan. Indoor Air 22(3):200–211. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.2011.00757.x
Andresen JA, Grundmann A, Bester K (2004) Organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticisers in surface waters. Sci Total Environ 332(1–3):155–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.04.021
Araki A, Saito I, Kanazawa A, Morimoto K, Nakayama K, Shibata E, Tanaka M, Takigawa T, Yoshimura T, Chikara H (2014) Phosphorus flame retardants in indoor dust and their relation to asthma and allergies of inhabitants. Indoor Air 24(1):3–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12054
Brommer S, Harrad S, Van DEN, Covaci A (2012) Concentrations of organophosphate esters and brominated flame retardants in german indoor dust samples. J Environ Monit Jem 14(9):2482–2487. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2em30303e
Cao Z, Xu F, Covaci A, Wu M, Wang H, Yu G, Wang B, Deng S, Huang J, Wang X (2014) Distribution patterns of brominated, chlorinated, and phosphorus flame retardants with particle size in indoor and outdoor dust and implications for human exposure. Environ Sci Technol 48(15):8839–8846. https://doi.org/10.1021/es501224b
Castrojiménez J, Berrojalbiz N, Pizarro M, Dachs J (2014) Organophosphate ester (OPE) flame retardants and plasticizers in the open Mediterranean and Black Seas atmosphere. Environ Sci Technol 48(6):3203–3209. https://doi.org/10.1021/es405337g
Cequier E, Ionas AC, Covaci A, Marcé RM, Becher G, Thomsen C (2014) Occurrence of a broad range of legacy and emerging flame retardants in indoor environments in Norway. Environ Sci Technol 48(12):6827–6835. https://doi.org/10.1021/es500516u
Cheng W, Xie Z, Blais JM, Zhang P, Li M, Yang C, Huang W, Ding R, Sun L (2013) Organophosphorus esters in the oceans and possible relation with ocean gyres. Environ Pollut 180(3):159–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.05.032
Crosse JD, Shore RF, Wadsworth RA, Jones KC, Pereira MG (2012) Long-term trends in PBDEs in sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) eggs indicate sustained contamination of UK terrestrial ecosystems. Environ Sci Technol 46(24):13504–13511. https://doi.org/10.1021/es303550f
Cui K, Wen J, Zeng F, Li S, Zhou X, Zeng Z (2017) Occurrence and distribution of organophosphate esters in urban soils of the subtropical city, Guangzhou, China. Chemosphere 175:514–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.02.070
Ding JJ (2016) Study on human exposure pahthways and accumulation characteristics of typical organophosphate flame. Zhejiang Univerisity.
Dodson RE, Perovich LJ, Adrian C, Nele VDE, Ionas AC, Dirtu AC, Green BJ, Rudel RA (2012) After the PBDE phase-out: a broad suite of flame retardants in repeat house dust samples from California. Environ Sci Technol 46(24):13056–13066. https://doi.org/10.1021/es303879n
Environmental Protection Department (2013) Handbook of Chinese population exposure parameters, adults. Environmental Protection Department, Beijing (in Chinese)
García M, Rodríguez I, Cela R (2007) Optimisation of a matrix solid-phase dispersion method for the determination of organophosphate compounds in dust samples. Anal Chim Acta 590(1):17–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2007.03.026
General Administration of Quality Supervision Inspection and Quarantine of the PRC (2012) Limit of harmful substances in plastic furniture. Reference No GB 28481-2012 (in Chinese)
Grieco SA, Ramarao BV (2013) Removal of tcep from aqueous solutions by adsorption with zeolites. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 434(19):329–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2013.04.042
Hartmann PC, Bürgi D, Giger W (2004) Organophosphate flame retardants and plasticizers in indoor air. Chemosphere 57(8):781–787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.08.051
He MJ, Luo XJ, Chen MY, Sun YX, Chen SJ, Mai BX (2012) Bioaccumulation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and decabromodiphenyl ethane in fish from a river system in a highly industrialized area, south China. Sci Total Environ 419:109–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.12.035
He MJ, Yang T, Yang ZH et al (2017a) Current state, distribution, and sources of phthalate esters and organophosphate esters in soils of the three gorges reservoir region, China. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 74(3):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-017-0469-7
He MJ, Yang T, Yang ZH, Li Q, Wei SQ (2017b) Occurrence and distribution of organophosphate esters in surface soil and street dust from Chongqing, China: implications for human exposure. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 73(3):349–361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-017-0432-7
He MJ, Lu JF, Ma JY, Wang H, Du XF (2018) Organophosphate esters and phthalate esters in human hair from rural and urban areas, Chongqing, China: concentrations, composition profiles and sources in comparison to street dust. Environ Pollut 237:143–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.02.040
Kim JW, Isobe T, Chang KH, Amano A, Maneja RH, Zamora PB, Siringan FP, Tanabe S (2011) Levels and distribution of organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers in fishes from Manila Bay, the Philippines. Environ Pollut 159(12):3653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.07.020
Li J (2014) Occurrence and health risk assessment of organophosphate flame retardants in drinking water and air. Nanjing University, Nanjing
Li RZ, Zhou AJ, Tong F, Wu YD, Zhang P, Yu J (2011) Distribution of metals in urban dusts of Hefei and health risk assessment. Environ Sci China 32(9):2661–2668. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1671-2927(11)60313-1
Li J, Yu N, Zhang B, Jin L, Li M, Hu M, Zhang X, Wei S, Yu H (2014) Occurrence of organophosphate flame retardants in drinking water from China. Water Res 54:53–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2014.01.031
Li J, Wang JX, Xu WT, Shang RS, Gu HD, Wen Y (2017) Contamination characteristics and human exposure to organophosphate flame retardants in road dust from Suzhou City. Environ Sci China 38(10):4220–4227. https://doi.org/10.13227/j.hjkx.201702001
Liu Y, Liggio J, Harner T, Jantunen L, Shoeib M, Li SM (2014) Heterogeneous OH initiated oxidation: a possible explanation for the persistence of organophosphate flame retardants in air. Environ Sci Technol 48(2):1041–1048. https://doi.org/10.1021/es404515k
Liu Q, Yin HL, Die Li, Deng Xu, Fang SH, Jing Sun (2017) Distribution of organic phosphate and health risk in indoor dust. Environ Sci China 37(8):2831–2839
Lyu R, Huang QF, Zhao C, et al (2015) Leaching characteristics and groundwater health risk assessment of PBDEs from consumer plastic product waste. Environ Chem 34(1):37–43. https://doi.org/10.7524/j.issn.0254-6108.2015.01.2014041502
Ma Y, Cui K, Zeng F, Wen JX, Liu H, Zhu F, Ouyang GF, Luan TG, Zeng ZX (2013) Microwave-assisted extraction combined with gel permeation chromatography and silica gel cleanup followed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry for the determination of organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers in biological samples. Anal Chim Acta 786(13):47–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2013.04.062
Mäkinen MSE, Mäkinen MRA, Koistinen JTB, Pasanen AL, Pasanen PO, Kalliokoski PJ, Korpi AM (2009) Respiratory and dermal exposure to organophosphorous flame retardants and tetrabomobisphenol A at five work environments. Environ Sci Technol 43(3):941–947. https://doi.org/10.1021/es802593t
Marklund A, Andersson B, Haglund P (2003) Screening of organophosphorus compounds and their distribution in various indoor environments. Chemosphere 53(9):1137–1146. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(03)00666-0
Marklund A, Barbro Andersson A, Haglund P (2005a) Organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers in Swedish sewage treatment plants. Environ Sci Technol 39(19):7423–7429. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0510131
Marklund A, Barbro Andersson A, Haglund P (2005b) Traffic as a source of organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers in snow. Environ Sci Technol 39(10):3555–3562. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0482177
Möller A, Xie Z, Caba A, Sturm R, Ebinghaus R (2011) Organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers in the atmosphere of the North Sea. Environ Pollut 159(12):3660–3665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.07.022
Möller A, Sturm R, Xie Z, Cai M, He J, Ebinghaus R (2012) Organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers in airborne particles over the northern pacific and Indian Ocean toward the polar regions: evidence for global occurrence. Environ Sci Technol 46(6):3127–3134. https://doi.org/10.1021/es204272v
Nazarpour A, Ghanavati N, Watts MJ (2017) Spatial distribution and human health risk assessment of mercury in street dust resulting from various land-use in Ahvaz, Iran. Environ Geochem Health 40(6):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-017-0016-5
Otake T, Yoshinaga J, Yanagisawa Y (2001) Analysis of organic esters of plasticizer in indoor air by GC–MS and GC–FPD. Environ Sci Technol 35(15):3099–3102. https://doi.org/10.1021/es001914o
Quednow K, Püttmann W (2009) Temporal concentration changes of DEET, TCEP, terbutryn, and nonylphenols in freshwater streams of Hesse, Germany: possible influence of mandatory regulations and voluntary environmental agreements. Environ Sci Pollut Res 16(6):630–640. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-009-0169-6
Reemtsma T, Quintana JB, Rodil R (2008) Organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers in water and air I. Occurrence and fate. TrAC Trends Anal Chem 27(9):727–737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2008.07.002
Salamova A, Hermanson MH, Hites RA (2014a) Organophosphate and halogenated flame retardants in atmospheric particles from a European Arctic site. Environ Sci Technol 48(11):6133–6140. https://doi.org/10.1021/es500911d
Salamova A, Ma Y, Venier M, Hites RA (2014b) High levels of organophosphate flame retardants in the great lakes atmosphere. Environ Sci Technol Letters 1(1):8–14. https://doi.org/10.1021/ez400034n
Schindler BK, Förster K, Angerer J (2009) Determination of human urinary organophosphate flame retardant metabolites by solid-phase extraction and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Chromatogr B Anal Technol Biomed Life Sci 877(4):375–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2008.12.030
Stapleton HM, Klosterhaus S, Eagle S, Fuh J, Meeker JD, Blum A (2009) Detection of organophosphate flame retardants in furniture foam and U.S. house dust. Environ Sci Technol 43(19):7490–7495. https://doi.org/10.1021/es9014019
Sühring R, Diamond ML, Scheringer M, Wong F, Pućko M, Stern G, Burt A, Hung H, Fellin P, Li H (2016) Organophosphate esters in Canadian arctic air: occurrence, levels and trends. Environ Sci Technol 50(14):7409–7415. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b00365
Sundkvist AM, Olofsson U, Haglund P (2010) Organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers in marine and fresh water biota and in human milk. Environ Monit 12(4):943–951. https://doi.org/10.1039/b921910b
Takeuchi S, Kojima H, Saito I, Jin K, Kobayashi S, Tanaka-Kagawa T, Jinno H (2014) Detection of 34 plasticizers and 25 flame retardants in indoor air from houses in Sapporo, Japan. Sci Total Environ 49:28–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.04.011
United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat) (2016) 2016 world urban population report. https://unhabitat.org/un-habitat-launches-the-world-cities-report-2016/. Accessed 20 Nov 2017
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2011) Exposure factors handbook. Office of Research and Development, Washington
US EPA (2004) Example exposure scenarios. US EPA, Washington, pp 1–1436
Wan W, Zhang S, Huang H, Wu T (2016) Occurrence and distribution of organophosphorus esters in soils and wheat plants in a plastic waste treatment area in China. Environ Pollut 214:349–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.04.038
Wang ZS, Duan XL, Ping L, Jing N, Nan H, Zhang JL (2009) Human exposure factors of Chinese people in environmental health risk assessment. Res Environ Sci 22(10):1164–1170 (in Chinese)
Wang X, He Y, Li L, Feng Z, Luan T (2013) Application of fully automatic hollow fiber liquid phase microextraction to assess the distribution of organophosphate esters in the Pearl River Estuaries. Sci Total Environ 471(2):263–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.09.069
Wei GL, Li DQ, Zhuo MN, Liao YS, Xie ZY, Guo TL, Li JJ, Zhang SY, Liang ZQ (2015) Organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers: sources, occurrence, toxicity and human exposure. Environ Pollut 196:29–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.09.012
Wen JX (2010) Study and application of separation and analysis of organophophophorus triesters. Sun Yat-sen University
Wolschke H, Sühring R, Xie Z, Ebinghaus R (2015) Organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers in the aquatic environment: a case study of the Elbe River, Germany. Environ Pollut 206:488–493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2015.08.002
Wong F, Suzuki G, Michinaka C, Yuan B, Takigami H, De Wit CA (2016) Dioxin-like activities, halogenated flame retardants, organophosphate esters and chlorinated paraffins in dust from Australia, the United Kingdom, Canada, Sweden and China. Chemosphere 168:1248–1256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.10.074
Wu M, Yu G, Cao Z, Wu D, Liu K, Deng S, Huang J, Wang B, Wang Y (2016) Characterization and human exposure assessment of organophosphate flame retardants in indoor dust from several microenvironments of Beijing, China. Chemosphere 150:465–471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.12.111
Yang F, Ding J, Huang W, Xie W, Liu W (2013) Particle size-specific distributions and preliminary exposure assessments of organophosphate flame retardants in office air particulate matter. Environ Sci Technol 48(1):63–70. https://doi.org/10.1021/es403186z
Yin HL, Li SP, Ye ZX, Yang YC, Liang JF, You JJ (2015) Pollution Level and Sources of Organic Phosphorus Esters in Airborne PM2.5 in Chengdu City. Environ Sci China 36(10):3566–3572. https://doi.org/10.13227/j.hjkx.2015.10.003
Yin HL, Li SP, Ye ZX, Liang JF, You JJ (2016) Pollution characteristics and sources of OPEs in the soil of Chengdu City. Sci Circum 36(2):606–613. https://doi.org/10.13671/j.hjkxxb.2015.0489
Zhou L, Hiltscher M, Gruber D, Püttmann W (2017) Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) in indoor and outdoor air in the Rhine/Main area, Germany: comparison of concentrations and distribution profiles in different microenvironments. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24(12):10992–11005. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6902-z
Acknowledgements
The authors received financial support from the National Natural Science Fund (41831285, 41773072, 21407014), Science and Technology Support Program of Sichuan Province (2015GZ0240), and the Key Laboratory Fund for Atmospheric Pollution Control and Environmental Simulation of Chengdu University of Information Technology (KFKT2016001).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Yin, H., Wu, D., You, J. et al. Occurrence, Distribution, and Exposure Risk of Organophosphate Esters in Street Dust from Chengdu, China. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 76, 617–629 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-019-00602-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-019-00602-3