Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Blood, Urine, and Sweat (BUS) Study: Monitoring and Elimination of Bioaccumulated Toxic Elements

  • Published:
Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

There is limited understanding of the toxicokinetics of bioaccumulated toxic elements and their methods of excretion from the human body. This study was designed to assess the concentration of various toxic elements in three body fluids: blood, urine and sweat. Blood, urine, and sweat were collected from 20 individuals (10 healthy participants and 10 participants with various health problems) and analyzed for approximately 120 various compounds, including toxic elements. Toxic elements were found to differing degrees in each of blood, urine, and sweat. Serum levels for most metals and metalloids were comparable with those found in other studies in the scientific literature. Many toxic elements appeared to be preferentially excreted through sweat. Presumably stored in tissues, some toxic elements readily identified in the perspiration of some participants were not found in their serum. Induced sweating appears to be a potential method for elimination of many toxic elements from the human body. Biomonitoring for toxic elements through blood and/or urine testing may underestimate the total body burden of such toxicants. Sweat analysis should be considered as an additional method for monitoring bioaccumulation of toxic elements in humans.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Agency for Toxic Substances Disease Registry (2008) Toxicological profile of Cadmium. Available via http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp.asp?id=48&tid=15. Accessed 14 Oct 2010

  • Aschner M, Aschner JL (1991) Manganese neurotoxicity: cellular effects and blood-brain barrier transport. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 15(3):333–340

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Augsten K, Stein G (1988) Scanning electron-microscopy and x-ray-microanalysis investigation of aluminum deposition in samples from hemodialyzed patients. Trace Elements Med 5(2):55–59

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barany E, Bergdahl IA, Bratteby LE, Lundh T, Samuelson G, Schutz A, et al (2002) Trace element levels in whole blood and serum from Swedish adolescents. Sci Total Environ 286:129–141

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Becaria A, Campbell A, Bondy SC (2002) Aluminum as a toxicant. Toxicol Ind Health 18(7):309–320

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bigham M, Copes R, Srour L (2002) Exposure to thimerosal in vaccines used in Canadian infant immunization programs, with respect to risk of neurodevelopmental disorders. Can Commun Dis Rep 28:69–80

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buechner P, Neufeld S, Mausberg B (2004) Metallic lunch: an analysis of heavy metals in the Canadian diet. Environ Def Can, Toronto

    Google Scholar 

  • Butterworth RF, Spahr L, Fontaine S, Layrargues GP (1995) Manganese toxicity, dopaminergic dysfunction and hepatic encephalopathy. Metab Brain Dis 10(4):259–267

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Canfield RL, Henderson CR Jr, Cory-Slechta DA, Cox C, Jusko TA, Lanphear BP (2003) Intellectual impairment in children with blood lead concentrations below 10 micrograms per deciliter. N Engl J Med 348(16):1517–1526

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control, Department of Health and Human Services. Fourth National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals (2009) CDC, Atlanta, GA, pp 1–529. Available via http://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/pdf/FourthReport.pdf. Accessed 18 Jan 2009

  • Chakraborti D, Ghorai SK, Das B, Pal A, Nayak B, Shah BA (2009) Arsenic exposure through groundwater to the rural and urban population in the Allahabad-Kanpur track in the upper Ganga plain. J Environ Monit 11(8):1455–1459

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen Y, Parvez F, Gamble M, Islam T, Ahmed A, Argos M, et al (2009) Arsenic exposure at low-to-moderate levels and skin lesions, arsenic metabolism, neurological functions, and biomarkers for respiratory and cardiovascular diseases: review of recent findings from the Health Effects of Arsenic Longitudinal Study (HEALS) in Bangladesh. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 239:184–192

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clark CS, Rampal KG, Thuppil V, Roda SM, Succop P, Menrath W, et al (2009) Lead levels in new enamel household paints from Asia, Africa and South America. Environ Res 109:930–936

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohn JR, Emmett EA (1978) The excretion of trace metals in human sweat. Ann Clin Lab Sci 8(4):270–275

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Corain B, Bombi GG, Tapparo A, Nicolini M, Zatta P, Perazzolo M, et al (1990) Alzheimer’s disease and aluminum toxicology. Environ Health Perspect 89:233–235

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Counter SA, Buchanan LH (2004) Mercury exposure in children: a review. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 198(2):209–230

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Darbre PD (2006) Metalloestrogens: an emerging class of inorganic xenoestrogens with potential to add to the oestrogenic burden of the human breast. J Appl Toxicol 26(3):191–197

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eisalo A, Luurila OJ (1988) The Finnish sauna and cardiovascular diseases. Ann Clin Res 20(4):267–270

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Emsley J (2001) Nature’s building block: an A-Z guide to the elements. Oxford University Press, New York

  • Environmental Working Group (2005) Body burden―The pollution in newborns: A benchmark investigation of industrial chemicals, pollutants and pesticides in umbilical cord blood (Executive Summary) July 14, 2005. Available via http://ewg.org/reports/bodyburden2/execsumm.php. Accessed 16 Sep 2005

  • Ewen C, Anagnostopoulou MA, Ward NI (2009) Monitoring of heavy metal levels in roadside dusts of Thessaloniki, Greece, in relation to motor vehicle traffic density and flow. Environ Monit Assess 157(1–4):483–498

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Falk B, Bar-Or O, Calvert R, MacDougall JD (1992) Sweat gland response to exercise in the heat among pre-, mid-, and late-pubertal boys. Med Sci Sports Exerc 24(3):313–319

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forrer R, Gautschi K, Lutz H (2001) Simultaneous measurement of the trace elements Al, As, B, Be, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Li, Mn, Mo, Ni, Rb, Se, Sr, and Zn in human serum and their reference ranges by ICP-MS. Biol Trace Elem Res 80(1):77–93

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler BA (1993) Mechanisms of kidney cell injury from metals. Environ Health Perspect 100:57–63

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fraser-Moodie A (2003) Mad as a hatter. Emerg Med J 20(6):568

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gabos S, Zemanek M, Cheperdak L, Kinniburgh D, Lee B, Hrudey S, et al (2005) Chemical biomonitoring in serum of pregnant women in Alberta. Alberta Health and Wellness, Public Health Division

  • Galle P, Giudicelli CP, Nebout T, Baglin A, Fries D (1987) Ultrastructural localization of aluminum in hepatocytes of hemodialyzed patients. Ann Pathol 7(3):163–170

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Genuis SJ (2006a) Health issues and the environment―an emerging paradigm for providers of obstetrical and gynecological healthcare. Human Reprod 21:2201–2208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Genuis SJ (2006b) The chemical erosion of human health: adverse environmental exposure and in utero pollution―determinants of congenital disorders and chronic disease. J Perinat Med 34:185–195

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Genuis SJ (2008) Toxic causes of mental illness are overlooked. Neurotoxicology 29(6):1147–1149

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Genuis SJ (2010) Elimination of persistent toxicants from the human body. Hum Exp Toxicol. doi:10.1177/0960327110368417

  • Gerber GB, Leonard A, Hantson P (2002) Carcinogenicity, mutagenicity and teratogenicity of manganese compounds. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 42(1):25–34

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goullé JP, Mahieu L, Castermant J, Neveu N, Bonneau L, Laine G, et al (2005) Metal and metalloid multi-elementary ICP-MS validation in whole blood, plasma, urine and hair. Reference values. Forensic Sci Int 153:39–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goyer RA (1993) Lead toxicity: current concerns. Environ Health Perspect 100:177–187

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grandjean P, Landrigan PJ (2006) Developmental neurotoxicity of industrial chemicals. Lancet 368(9553):2167–2178

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guzzi G, Grandi M, Cattaneo C, Calza S, Minoia C, Ronchi A, et al (2006) Dental amalgam and mercury levels in autopsy tissues: food for thought. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 27:42–45

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hannuksela ML, Ellahham S (2001) Benefits and risks of sauna bathing. Am J Med 110(2):118–126

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Health C (2007) Health Canada advises specific groups to limit their consumption of canned albacore tuna. 2007. Available via http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/media/advisories-avis/2007/2007_14_e.html. Accessed 27 July 2007

  • Hohnadel D, Sunderman F, Nechay M, Mcneely M (1973) Excretion of nickel, copper, zinc and lead in sweat of healthy subjects during sauna bathing. Clin Chem 19(6):1288–1292

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoshi A, Watanabe H, Kobayashi M, Chiba M, Inaba Y, Kimura N, et al (2001) Concentrations of trace elements in sweat during sauna bathing. Tohoku J Exp Med 195:163–169

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter D, Bomford RR, Russell DS (1940) Poisoning by methyl mercury compound. Qual J Med 9:193–215

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Institut National de Santé Publique du Québec (2004) Étude sur l’établissement de valeurs de référence d’éléments traces et de métaux dans le sang, le sérum, et l’urine de la population de la grande région de Québec. Institut National de Santé Publique du Québec

  • Jandacek RJ, Anderson N, Liu M, Zheng S, Yang Q, Tso P (2005) Effects of yo-yo diet, caloric restriction, and olestra on tissue distribution of hexachlorobenzene. Am J Physiol 288(2):G292–G299

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jarup L, Akesson A (2009) Current status of cadmium as an environmental health problem. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 238(3):201–208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr DN, Ward MK, Ellis HA, Simpson W, Parkinson IS (1992) Aluminium intoxication in renal disease. Ciba Found Symp 169:123–141

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kukkonen-Harjula K, Kauppinen K (2006) Health effects and risks of sauna bathing. Int J Circumpolar Health 65(3):195–205

    Google Scholar 

  • Langard S (1990) One hundred years of chromium and cancer: a review of epidemiological evidence and selected case reports. Am J Ind Med 17(2):189–215

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Langard S, Vigander T (1983) Occurrence of lung cancer in workers producing chromium pigments. Br J Ind Med 40(1):71–74

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lanphear BP, Hornung R, Khoury J, Yolton K, Baghurst P, Bellinger DC, et al (2005) Low-level environmental lead exposure and children’s intellectual function: an international pooled analysis. Environ Health Perspect 113:894–899

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leppaluoto J (1988) Human thermoregulation in sauna. Ann Clin Res 20(4):240–243

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liang F, Li Y, Zhang G, Tan M, Lin J, Liu W, et al (2010) Total and speciated arsenic levels in rice from China. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 27:810–816

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lin YS, Caffrey JL, Chang MH, Dowling N, Lin JW (2010) Cigarette smoking, cadmium exposure, and zinc intake on obstructive lung disorder. Respir Res 11(1):53

    Google Scholar 

  • Menke A, Muntner P, Silbergeld EK, Platz EA, Guallar E (2009) Cadmium levels in urine and mortality among US adults. Environ Health Perspect 117(2):190–196

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Michalke B, Halbach S, Nischwitz V (2007) Speciation and toxicological relevance of manganese in humans. J Environ Monit 9(7):650–656

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Michalke B, Halbach S, Nischwitz V (2009) JEM spotlight: metal speciation related to neurotoxicity in humans. J Environ Monit 11(5):939–954

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nayak P, Chatterjee AK (2001) Differential responses of certain brain phosphoesterases to aluminium in dietary protein adequacy and inadequacy. Food Chem Toxicol 39(6):587–592

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Needleman HL, Gunnoe C, Leviton A, Reed R, Peresie H, Maher C, et al (1979) Deficits in psychologic and classroom performance of children with elevated dentine lead levels. N Engl J Med 300:689–695

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Needleman HL, Riess JA, Tobin MJ, Biesecker GE, Greenhouse JB (1996) Bone lead levels and delinquent behavior. JAMA 275(5):363–369

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nevin R (2000) How lead exposure relates to temporal changes in IQ, violent crime, and unwed pregnancy. Environ Res 83(1):1–22

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nevin R (2007) Understanding international crime trends: the legacy of preschool lead exposure. Environ Res 104(3):315–336

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oken E, Bellinger DC (2008) Fish consumption, methylmercury and child neurodevelopment. Curr Opin Pediatr 20(2):178–183

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pais I, Jones J (1997) The handbook of trace elements. St. Lucie Press, Boca Raton, FL, p 60

    Google Scholar 

  • Parpalei IA, Prokof’eva LG, Obertas VG (1991) The use of the sauna for disease prevention in the workers of enterprises with chemical and physical occupational hazards. Vrach Delo 5:93–95

    Google Scholar 

  • Pasha Q, Malik SA, Shaheen N, Shah MH (2010) Investigation of trace metals in the blood plasma and scalp hair of gastrointestinal cancer patients in comparison with controls. Clin Chim Acta 411(7–8):531–539

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rajwanshi P, Singh V, Gupta MK, Kumari V, Shrivastav R, Ramanamurthy M, et al (1997) Studies on aluminium leaching from cookware in tea and coffee and estimation of aluminium content in toothpaste, baking powder and paan masala. Sci Total Environ 193:243–249

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rao MV, Avani G (2004) Arsenic induced free radical toxicity in brain of mice. Indian J Exp Biol 42(5):495–498

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rea WJ (1997) Chemical sensitivity, vol. 4. Tools of diagnosis and methods of treatment. Lewis, Boca Raton, FL

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodushkin I, Odman F (2001) Analysis of biological samples by double focusing ICP-MS. Transworld research network. Recent Dev Pure Appl Anal Chem 5:51–66

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodushkin I, Ödman F, Olofsson RS, Axelsson MD (2000) Determination of 60 elements in whole blood by sector field inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. J Anal At Spectrom 15:937–944

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodushkin I, Engstrom E, Stenberg A, Baxter DC (2004) Determination of low-abundance elements at ultra-trace levels in urine and serum by inductively coupled plasma-sector field mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 380(2):247–257

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rollin HB, Sandanger TM, Hansen L, Channa K, Odland JO (2009a) Concentration of selected persistent organic pollutants in blood from delivering women in South Africa. Sci Total Environ 408(1):146–152

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rollin H, Odland JO, Theodoru P,  Naik I (2009b) Concentrations of toxic metals in blood and cord blood of delivering women from three Indian Ocean coastal communities, South Africa. North-South research collaboration. Epidemiology 20(6):S254–S255

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samanta G, Das D, Mandal BK, Chowdhury TR, Chakraborti D, Pal A, et al (2007) Arsenic in the breast milk of lactating women in arsenic-affected areas of West Bengal, India and its effect on infants. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng 42:1815–1825

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schnaas L, Rothenberg SJ, Flores MF, Martinez S, Hernandez C, Osorio E, et al (2006) Reduced intellectual development in children with prenatal lead exposure. Environ Health Perspect 114:791–797

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz BS, Stewart WF, Bolla KI, Simon PD, Bandeen-Roche K, Gordon PB, et al (2000) Past adult lead exposure is associated with longitudinal decline in cognitive function. Neurology 55:1144–1150

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sears M, Bray R (2008) Toxic metals in Canadians and their environments: Exposures, health effects, and physician and public health management strategies. A scoping review. Clinical Research Grants Awarded in 2008 by the Canadian Institute for Health Research

  • Spinelli JJ, Demers PA, Le ND, Friesen MD, Lorenzi MF, Fang R, et al (2006) Cancer risk in aluminum reduction plant workers (Canada). Cancer Causes Control 17:939–948

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suwazono Y, Sand S, Vahter M, Filipsson AF, Skerfving S, Lidfeldt J, et al (2006) Benchmark dose for cadmium-induced renal effects in humans. Environ Health Perspect 114:1072–1076

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • The Prague Declaration on Endocrine Disruption—126 Signatories (2005) Meeting for international group of scientists convened in Prague

  • United States Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2010) Urinary Heavy Metals, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Available via http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/nhanes2005-2006/lab05_06.htm. Accessed 28 April 2010

  • United States Department of Health and Human Services, Environmental Protection Agency (2004) What you need to know about mercury in fish and shellfish. EPA and FDA advice for women who might become pregnant, women who are pregnant, nursing mothers, and young children. Available via http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/admehg3.html. Accessed 9 March 2007

  • Vahidnia A, van der Voet GB, de Wolff FA (2007) Arsenic neurotoxicity―a review. Hum Exp Toxicol 26(10):823–832

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weidenhamer JD (2009) Lead contamination of inexpensive seasonal and holiday products. Sci Total Environ 407(7):2447–2450

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • White LD, Cory-Slechta DA, Gilbert ME, Tiffany-Castiglioni E, Zawia NH, Virgolini M, et al (2007) New and evolving concepts in the neurotoxicology of lead. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 225:1–27

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zatta P, Lucchini R, van Rensburg SJ, Taylor A (2003) The role of metals in neurodegenerative processes: aluminum, manganese, and zinc. Brain Res Bull 1:15–28

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada

    Stephen J. Genuis & Detlef Birkholz

  2. Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden

    Ilia Rodushkin

  3. Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada

    Sanjay Beesoon

Authors
  1. Stephen J. Genuis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Detlef Birkholz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ilia Rodushkin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Sanjay Beesoon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Stephen J. Genuis.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Genuis, S.J., Birkholz, D., Rodushkin, I. et al. Blood, Urine, and Sweat (BUS) Study: Monitoring and Elimination of Bioaccumulated Toxic Elements. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 61, 344–357 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-010-9611-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-010-9611-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation