Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Hooking Up and Emerging Adults’ Relationship Attitudes and Expectations

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Sexuality & Culture Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The dating landscape has changed markedly in recent years, with many emerging adults taking a less committed approach to relationships and sex (e.g., “hooking up”). Delayed marital transitions and declining rates of marriage have led to concerns that the rise of the “hookup culture” is associated with a devaluing of marriage. Previous research on associations between sexual attitudes or overall sexual experience and marital attitudes has produced inconsistent findings and is not representative of modern union formation and sexual norms. Using a sample of 248 emerging adults, we examined associations between engagement in casual sexual behavior (i.e., hooking up) and expectations for future committed relationships and marriage as well as attitudes toward current relationship involvement. Contrary to concerns about the devaluation of marriage, results indicated that level of engagement in hooking up was not associated with expectations for involvement in future committed relationships, including marriage. However, hooking up was associated with less favorable attitudes toward current relationship involvement. These findings suggest that engagement in hooking up is a time-specific behavior that aligns with the self-focused nature of emerging adulthood, rather than indicating a lack of interest in future committed relationships or marriage.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnett, J. J. (1997). Young people’s conceptions of the transition to adulthood. Youth & Society, 29, 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X97029001001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469–480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.5.469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnett, J. J. (2004). Emerging adulthood: The winding road through the late teens and twenties. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aubrey, J. S., & Smith, S. E. (2013). Development and validation of the endorsement of the hookup culture index. Journal of Sex Research, 50, 435–448. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2011.637246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Banker, J. E., Kaestle, C. E., & Allen, K. R. (2010). Dating is hard work: A narrative approach to understanding sexual and romantic relationships in young adulthood. Contemporary Family Therapy, 32, 173–191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10591-009-9111-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bedard, P. (2014). Census: Marriage rate at 93-year low, even including same-sex couples. Washington, DC: Washington Examiner.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bogle, K. A. (2008). Hooking up: Sex, dating, and relationships on campus. New York: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradshaw, C., Kahn, A. S., & Saville, B. K. (2010). To hook up or date: Which gender benefits? Sex Roles, 62(9–10), 661–669.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, J.S., Badger, S., Willoughby, B., Nelson, L. J., Madsen, S. D., & McNamara Barry, C. (2009). Ready or not? Criteria for marriage readiness among for emerging adults. Journal of Adolescent Research, 24, 349–375. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558409334253. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558407299697.

  • Carroll, J. S., Willoughby, B., Badger, S., Nelson, L. J., McNamara Barry, C., & Madsen, S. D. (2007). So close, yet so far away: The impact of varying marital horizons on emerging adulthood. Journal of Adolescent Research, 22, 219–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cherlin, A. J. (2004). The deinstitutionalization of American marriage. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66, 848–861. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-2445.2004.00058.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cherlin, A. J. (2009). The marriage-go-round. New York: Vintage Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Claxton, S. E., & van Dulmen, M. H. (2013). Casual sexual relationships and experiences in emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 1, 138–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cuba, J. (2013). Hook up culture is ruining our marriage prospects. Pipe Dream. Retrieved from http://www.bupipedream.com/opinion/23751/hook-up-culture-is-ruining-our-generation8217s-marriage-prospects/. Accessed 31 July 2017.

  • Elias, V. L., Fullerton, A. S., & Simpson, J. M. (2015). Long-term changes in attitudes toward premarital sex in the United States: Reexamining the role of cohort replacement. The Journal of Sex Research, 52(2), 129–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fielder, R. L., & Carey, M. P. (2010). Prevalence and characteristics of sexual hookups among first-semester female college students. Journal of Sex & Martial Therapy, 36, 346–359. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2010.488118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, J. R., & Reiber, C. (2008). Hook-up behavior: A biopsychosocial perspective. Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology, 2(4), 192–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, J. R., Reiber, C., Massey, S. G., & Merriwether, A. M. (2012). Sexual hookup culture: A review. Review of General Psychology, 16, 161–176. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027911.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson-Davis, C. M., Edin, K., & McLanahan, S. (2005). High hopes but even higher expectations: The retreat from marriage among low-income couples. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67(5), 1301–1312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glenn, N., & Marquardt, E. (2001). Hooking up, hanging out, and hoping for Mr. right: College women on dating and mating today. New York: Institute for American Values.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, J. R., & Kenney, C. T. (2001). Marriage delayed or marriage forgone? New cohort forecasts of first marriage for US women. American Sociological Review, 66, 506–519.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, L., & Armstrong, E. A. (2009). Gendered sexuality in young adulthood: Double binds and flawed options. Gender & Society, 23(5), 589–616.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hymowitz, K. S., Carroll, J. S., Wilcox, W. B., & Kaye, K. (2013). Knot yet: The benefits and costs of delayed marriage in America. National Marriage Project at the University of Virginia.

  • Kefalas, M. J., Furstenberg, F. F., Carr, P. J., & Napolitano, L. (2011). ‘Marriage is more than being together’: The meaning of marriage for young adults. Journal of Family Issues, 32, 845–875. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X10397277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lauer, S., & Yodanis, C. (2010). The deinstitutionalization of marriage revisited: A new institutional approach to marriage. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 2, 58–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy, M. C. (2015). Hooking up as an individualistic practice: A double-edged sword for college women. Sexuality and Culture, 19(3), 464–492.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lundberg, S., & Pollak, R. A. (2014). Cohabitation and the uneven retreat from marriage in the United States, 1950–2010. In L. P. Boustan, C. Frydman, & R. A. Margo (Eds.), Human capital in history: The American record (pp. 241–272). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNamara Barry, C. M., Madsen, S. D., Nelson, L. J., Carroll, J. S., & Badger, S. (2009). Friendship and romantic relationship qualities in emerging adulthood: Differential associations with identity development and achieved adulthood criteria. Journal of Adult Development, 16(4), 209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Napper, L. E., Montes, K. S., Kenney, S. R., & LaBrie, J. W. (2016). Assessing the personal negative impacts of hooking up experienced by college students: Gender differences and mental health. The Journal of Sex Research, 53(7), 766–775.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, L. J., & Barry, C. M. (2005). Distinguishing features of emerging adulthood: The role of self-classification as an adult. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20, 242–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Owen, J. J., Rhoades, G. K., Stanley, S. M., & Fincham, F. D. (2010). “Hooking up” among college students: Demographic and psychosocial correlates. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39(3), 653–663.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paul, E. L., McManus, B., & Hayes, A. (2000). ”Hookups”: Characteristics and correlates of college students’ spontaneous and anonymous sexual experiences. The Journal of Sex Research, 37, 76–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reifman, A., Arnett, J. J., & Colwell, M. J. (2007). Emerging adulthood: Theory, assessment and application. Journal of Youth Development, 2(1), 37–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sales, N. J. (2015, August 31). Tinder and the dawn of the “Dating Apocalypse”. Vanity Fair. Retrieved from http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2015/08/Tinder-hook-up-culture-end-of-dating. Accessed 24 Aug 2017.

  • Salmela-Aro, K., Aunola, K., & Nurmi, J. E. (2007). Personal goals during emerging adulthood: A 10-year follow up. Journal of Adolescent Research, 22(6), 690–715.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, M. E., Schelar, E., Manlove, J., & Cui, C. (2009). Young adult attitudes about relationships and marriage: Times may have changed, but expectations remain high. Child Trends, 30, 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Settersten, R. A., Ottusch, T. M., & Schneider, B. (2015). Becoming adult: Meanings of markers to adulthood. Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 26, 667–692.

    Google Scholar 

  • Settersten, R. A., & Ray, B. (2010). What’s going on with young people today? The long and twisting path to adulthood. The Future of Children, 20, 19–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shulman, S., & Connolly, J. (2013). The challenge of romantic relationships in emerging adulthood: Reconceptualization of the field. Emerging Adulthood, 1(1), 27–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simons, L. G., Burt, C. H., & Tambling, R. B. (2013). Identifying mediators of the influence of family factors on risky sexual behavior. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22(4), 460–470.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stepp, L. S. (2007). Unhooked: How young women pursue sex, delay love, and lose at both. New York: Riverhead.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strokoff, J., Owen, J., & Fincham, F. D. (2015). Diverse reactions to hooking up among US university students. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 935–943.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornton, A., & Young-DeMarco, L. (2001). Four decades of trends in attitudes toward family issues in the United States: The 1960s through the 1990s. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 1009–1037.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M. (2013). The evidence for generation me and against generation we. Emerging Adulthood, 1(1), 11–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., Campbell, W. K., & Freeman, E. C. (2012). Generational differences in young adults’ life goals, concern for others, and civic orientation, 1966–2009. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(5), 1045.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., Sherman, R. A., & Wells, B. E. (2015). Changes in American adults’ sexual behavior and attitudes, 1972–2012. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44(8), 2273–2285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., Sherman, R. A., & Wells, B. E. (2017). Sexual inactivity during young adulthood is more common among us millennials and igen: Age, period, and cohort effects on having no sexual partners after age 18. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46(2), 433–440.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vespa, J. (2017). The changing economics and demographics of young adulthood: 1975–2016. Current population reports, 20-579.

  • Wang, W., & Parker, K. C. (2014). Record share of Americans have never married: As values, economics and gender patterns change. Pew Research Center, Social & Demographic Trends Project.

  • Whitehead, B. D., & Popenoe, D. (2007). The state of our unions: The social health of marriage in America. The National Marriage Project. Retrieved from http://www.stateofourunions.org/pdfs/SOOU2007.pdf. Accessed 28 July 2017.

  • Willoughby, B. J. (2010). Marital attitude trajectories across adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 1305–1317. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9477-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willoughby, B. J. (2012). Associations between sexual behavior, sexual attitudes, and marital horizons during emerging adulthood. Journal of Adult Development, 19, 100–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-011-9138-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willoughby, B. J., & Carroll, J. S. (2010). Sexual experience and couple formation attitudes among emerging adults. Journal of Adult Development, 17, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s1084-009-9073-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willoughby, B. J., Carroll, J. S., Vitas, J. M., & Hill, L. M. (2012). “When are you getting married?” The intergenerational transmission of attitudes regarding marital timing and marital importance. Journal of Family Issues, 33(2), 223–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willoughby, B. J., & Dworkin, J. (2009). The relationship between emerging adults’ expressed desire to marry and frequency of participation in risk-taking behaviors. Youth & Society, 40, 426–450. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X08318116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willoughby, B. J., & Hall, S. S. (2015). Enthusiasts, delayers, and the ambiguous middle: Marital paradigms among emerging adults. Emerging Adulthood, 3(2), 123–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willoughby, B. J., Hall, S. S., & Goff, S. (2015a). Marriage matters but how much? Marital centrality among young adults. The Journal of Psychology, 149(8), 796–817.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willoughby, B. J., Medaris, M., James, S., & Bartholomew, K. (2015b). Changes in marital beliefs among emerging adults: Examining marital paradigms over time. Emerging Adulthood, 3(4), 219–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This study was funded by the University Research Council at University of Cincinnati and Research Experiences for Undergraduates in Complex Psychological Systems. National Science Foundation (Grant #1263142).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Psychology Department, Mail Center 0376, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, 45221-0376, USA

    Neslihan James-Kangal & Sarah W. Whitton

  2. Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, USA

    Eliza M. Weitbrecht

  3. Department of Applied Psychology, New York University Steinhardt, New York, NY, USA

    Trenel E. Francis

Authors
  1. Neslihan James-Kangal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Eliza M. Weitbrecht
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Trenel E. Francis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Sarah W. Whitton
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Neslihan James-Kangal.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. This article does not contain any studies with animals performed by any of the authors.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

James-Kangal, N., Weitbrecht, E.M., Francis, T.E. et al. Hooking Up and Emerging Adults’ Relationship Attitudes and Expectations. Sexuality & Culture 22, 706–723 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-018-9495-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-018-9495-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation