Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Assessing spatial and temporal patterns of canopy decline across a diverse montane landscape in the Klamath Mountains, CA, USA using a 30-year Landsat time series

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Landscape Ecology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

    We’re sorry, something doesn't seem to be working properly.

    Please try refreshing the page. If that doesn't work, please contact support so we can address the problem.

Abstract

Context

Tree mortality is of considerable concern, but the magnitude and extent of forest canopy decline are relatively unknown in landscapes with high levels of topographic complexity, spatial heterogeneity, and species diversity. We assessed 30 years of canopy decline, including a 5-year period characterized by extreme drought, in one of North America’s most diverse landscapes in the Klamath Mountains of northern California, USA.

Objectives

(1) Characterize tree mortality by species, (2) Quantify temporal and spatial patterns of remotely-sensed canopy decline in relation to climate, (3) Compare canopy decline among vegetation types, topographic settings, and stand structural classes during drought.

Methods

We characterized tree mortality by species with field data and quantified the role of climate on canopy decline with a 30-year Landsat time series. We assessed and compared the role of topography and stand structure on canopy decline during drought.

Results

Most tree mortality and canopy decline occurred at higher elevations in Shasta red fir (Abies magnifica var. shastensis) and subalpine forests. Annual area of canopy decline was positively correlated with summer temperature and minimum vapor pressure deficit but not precipitation. The area of canopy decline was three times greater during the drought. The magnitude of decline was greatest at higher elevations, on more exposed, southwestern slopes, and in stands with old-growth structure. Stands in valleys and low slopes experienced relatively little decline.

Conclusions

Our study demonstrates the vulnerability of high elevation, old-growth forests to increasing temperature and suggests the potential for refugia from drought in diverse, heterogeneous landscapes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allen CD, Macalady AK, Chenchouni H, Bachelet D, McDowell N, Vennetier M, Kitzberger T, Rigling A, Breshears DD, Hogg EH, Gonzalez P, Fensham R, Zhangm Z, Castro J, Demidova N, Lim JH, Allard G, Running SW, Semerci A, Cobb N (2010) A global overview of drought and heat-induced tree mortality reveals emerging climate change risks for forests. For Ecol Manag 259(4):660–684

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen CD, Breshears DD, McDowell NG (2015) On underestimation of global vulnerability to tree mortality and forest die-off from hotter drought in the Anthropocene. Ecosphere 6(8):1–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderegg WRL, Kane JM, Anderegg LDL (2012) Consequences of widespread tree mortality triggered by drought and temperature stress. Nat Clim Change 3(1):30–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Battles JJ, Robards T, Das A, Waring K, Gilless JK, Biging G, Schurr F (2008) Climate change impacts on forest growth and tree mortality: a data-driven modeling study in the mixed-conifer forest of the Sierra Nevada, California. Clim Change 87(S1):193–213

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bekker MF, Taylor AH (2001) Gradient analysis of fire regimes in montane forests of the southern Cascade range, Thousand Lakes Wilderness, California, USA. Plant Ecol 155:15–28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bekker MF, Taylor AH (2010) Fire disturbance, forest structure, and stand dynamics in montane forests of the southern Cascades, Thousand Lakes Wilderness, California, USA. Ecoscience 17:59–72

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell DM, Cohen WB, Reilly M, Yang Z (2018) Visual interpretation and time series modeling of Landsat imagery highlight drought’s role in forest canopy declines. Ecosphere 9(6):e02195

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bentz BJ, Régnière J, Fettig CJ, Hansen EM, Hayes JL, Hicke JA, Kelsey RG, Negrón JF, Seybold SJ (2010) Climate change and bark beetles of the western United States and Canada: direct and indirect effects. Bioscience 60(8):602–613

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman JA, Brooks PD, Harpold AA, Gochis DJ, Gutmann E, Reed DE, Pendall E, Ewers BE (2014) Multiscale observations of snow accumulation and peak snowpack following widespread, insect-induced lodgepole pine mortality. Ecohydrology 7(1):150–162

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cline SP, Berg AB, Wight HM (1980) Snag characteristics and dynamics in Douglas-fir forests, Western Oregon. J Wildl Manag 40(4):773–786

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen WB, Yang Z, Kennedy R (2010) Detecting trends in forest disturbance and recovery using yearly Landsat time series: 2 TimeSync—Tools for calibration and validation. Remote Sens Environ 114(12):2911–2924

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen WB, Yang Z, Stehman SV, Schroeder TA, Bell DM, Masek JG, Huang C, Meigs GW (2016) Forest disturbance across the conterminous United States from 1985–2012: the emerging dominance of forest decline. For Ecol Manag 360:242–252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coleman RG, Kruckeberg AR (1999) Geology and plant life of the Klamath-Siskiyou Mountain region. Nat Areas J 19(4):320–340

    Google Scholar 

  • Copeland SM, Harrison SP, Latimer AM, Damschen EI, Eskelinen AM, Fernandez-Going B, Spasojevic MJ, Anacker BL, Thorne JH (2016) Ecological effects of extreme drought on Californian herbaceous plant communities. Ecol Monogr 86(3):295–311

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crist EP, Cicone RC (1984) A physically-based transformation of thematic mapper data—the TM tasseled cap IEEE. Trans Geosci Remote Sens GE 22(3):256–263

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daly C, Gibson WP, Taylor GH, Johnson GL, Pasteris P (2002) A knowledge-based approach to the statistical mapping of climate. Clim Res 22(2):99–113

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daly C, Conklin DR, Unsworth MH (2010) Local atmospheric decoupling in complex topography alters climate change impacts. Int J Climatol 30(12):1857–1864

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeSiervo MH, Jules ES, Bost DS, Stigter DLE, Butz RJ (2018) Patterns and drivers of recent tree mortality in diverse conifer forests of the Klamath Mountains, California. For Sci 64(4):371–382

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DiMario AA, Kane JM, Jules ES (2018) Characterizing forest floor fuels surrounding large sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana) in the Klamath Mountains, California. Northwest Sci 92(3):181–190

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dobrowski SZ (2011) A climatic basis for microrefugia: the influence of terrain on climate. Glob Change Biol 17(2):1022–1035

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dolph KL, Mori SR, Oliver WM (1995) Long-term responses of old-growth stands to varying levels of partial cutting in the eastside pine type. West J Appl For 10:101–108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frey SJK, Hadley AS, Johnson SL, Schulze M, Jones JA, Betts MG (2016) Spatial models reveal the microclimatic buffering capacity of old-growth forests. Sci Adv 2(4):e1501392

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin NR, Coops NC, Wulder MA, Gillanders S, Schroeder TA, Nelson T (2008) Estimation of insect infestation dynamics using a temporal sequence of Landsat data. Remote Sens Environ 112(9):3680–3689

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gruell GE (2001) Fire in Sierra Nevada forests: a photographic interpretation of ecological change since 1849. Mountain Press, Missoula

    Google Scholar 

  • Guarín A, Taylor AH (2005) Drought triggered tree mortality in mixed conifer forests in Yosemite National Park, California, USA. For Ecol Manag 218(1–3):229–244

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hart SJ, Veblen TT, Schneider D, Molotch NP (2017) Summer and winter drought drive the initiation and spread of spruce beetle outbreak. Ecology 98(10):2698–2707

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hicke JA, Meddens AJ, Kolden CA (2015) Recent tree mortality in the western United States from bark beetles and forest fires. For Sci 62(2):141–153

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenness J (2006) Topographic position index extension for ArcView 3x, v 13a. Jenness Enterprises. http://www.jennessent.com/downloads/tpi_documentation_online.pdf. Accessed 27 Dec 2018

  • Kauffmann ME (2012) Conifer country: a natural history and hiking guide to 35 conifers of the Klamath Mountain region. Backcountry Press, Kneeland

    Google Scholar 

  • Keeler-Wolf T (1984) Vegetation map of the upper Sugar Creek drainage, Siskiyou County. Unpublished report on file. Pacific Southwest Research Station, Albany

    Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy RE, Townsend PA, Gross JE, Cohen WB, Bolstad P, Wang YQ, Adams P (2009) Remote sensing change detection tools for natural resource managers: understanding concepts and tradeoffs in the design of landscape monitoring projects. Remote Sens Environ 113(7):1382–1396

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy RE, Yang Z, Cohen WB (2010) Detecting trends in forest disturbance and recovery using yearly Landsat time series: 1 LandTrendr—temporal segmentation algorithms. Remote Sens Environ 114(12):2897–2910

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy RE, Yang Z, Cohen WB, Pfaff E, Braaten J, Nelson P (2012) Spatial and temporal patterns of forest disturbance and regrowth within the area of the Northwest Forest Plan. Remote Sens Environ 122:117–133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keppel G, Van Niel KP, Wardell-Johnson GW, Yates CJ, Byrne M, Mucina L, Schut AGT, Hopper SD, Franklin SE (2012) Refugia: identifying and understanding safe havens for biodiversity under climate change. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 21(4):393–404

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klos RJ, Wang GG, Bauerle WL, Rieck JR (2009) Drought impact on forest growth and mortality in the southeast USA: an analysis using Forest Health and Monitoring data. Ecol Appl 19(3):699–708

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maloney PE, Vogler DR, Eckert AJ, Jensen CE, Neale DB (2011) Population biology of sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana Dougl) with reference to historical disturbances in the Lake Tahoe Basin: implications for restoration. For Ecol Manage 262(5):770–779

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manion PD (1991) Tree disease concepts, 2nd edn. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs

    Google Scholar 

  • McCune B, Keon D (2002) Equations for potential annual direct incident radiation and heat load. J Veg Sci 13(4):603–606

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGarigal K, Marks BJ (1995) FRAGSTATS: spatial pattern analysis program for quantifying landscape structure. Gen Tech Rep PNW-GTR-351. US. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR, vol 122, p 351

  • McGarigal K, Cushman SA, Ene E (2012) FRAGSTATS v4: spatial pattern analysis program for categorical and continuous maps computer software program. Produced by the authors at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst

  • McKelvey KS, Skinner CN, Chang C, Erman DC, Husari SJ, Parsons DJ, van Wagtendonk JW, Weatherspoon PC (1996) An overview of fire in the Sierra Nevada. In: Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project, final report to congress, vol II. Assessments and Scientific Basis for Management Options Davis, CA, University of California, Centers for Water and Wildland Resources Report No 37, pp 1033–1040

  • Meddens AJH, Hicke JA, Ferguson CA (2012) Spatiotemporal patterns of observed bark beetle-caused tree mortality in British Columbia and the western United States. Ecol Appl 22(7):1876–1891

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meddens AJH, Hicke JA, Vierling LA, Hudak AT (2013) Evaluating methods to detect bark beetle-caused tree mortality using single-date and multi-date Landsat imagery. Remote Sens Environ 132:49–58

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Millar CI, Westfall RD, Delany DL, Bokach MJ, Flint AL, Flint LE (2012) Forest mortality in high-elevation whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) forests of eastern California, USA; influence of environmental context, bark beetles, climatic water deficit, and warming. Can J For Res 42(4):749–765

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller JD, Safford HD, Crimmins M, Thode AE (2009) Quantitative evidence for increasing forest fire severity in the Sierra Nevada and Southern Cascade Mountains, California and Nevada, USA. Ecosystems 12(1):16–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morawitz DF, Blewett TM, Cohen A, Alberti M (2006) Using NDVI to assess vegetative land cover change in central Puget Sound. Environ Monit Assess 114(1–3):85–106

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morelli TL, Daly C, Dobrowski SZ, Dulen DM, Ebersole JL, Jackson ST, Lundquist JD, Millar CI, Maher SP, Monahan WB, Nydick KR, Redmond KT, Sawyer SC, Stock S, Beissinger SR (2016) Managing climate change refugia for climate adaptation. PLoS ONE 11(8):e0159909

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mortenson L, Gray AN, Shaw DC (2015) A forest health inventory assessment of red fir (Abies magnifica) in upper montane California. Ecoscience 22(1):47–58

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Odion DC, Frost EJ, Strittholt JR, Jiang H, Dellasala DA, Moritz MA (2004) Patterns of fire severity and forest conditions in the western Klamath Mountains, California. Conserv Biol 18(4):927–936

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker I, Matyas W (1979) CALVEG: a classification of Californian vegetation. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Region Station, Albany

    Google Scholar 

  • Paz-Kagan T, Brodrick PG, Vaughn NR, Das AJ, Stephenson NL, Nydick KR, Asner GP (2017) What mediates tree mortality during drought in the southern Sierra Nevada? Ecol Appl 27:2443–2457

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Potter C (2016) Thirty years of vegetation change in the coastal Santa Cruz Mountains of Northern California detected using landsat satellite image analysis. J Coast Conserv 20(1):51–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R Core Development Team (2017) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna

    Google Scholar 

  • Rapacciuolo G, Maher SP, Schneider AC, Hammond TT, Jabis MD, Walsh RE, Iknayan KJ, Walden GK, Oldfather MF, Ackerly DD, Beissinger SR (2014) Beyond a warming fingerprint: individualistic biogeographic responses to heterogeneous climate change in California. Glob Change Biol 20(9):2841–2855

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reilly MJ, Spies TA (2016) Disturbance, tree mortality, and implications of regional forest change in the Pacific Northwest. For Ecol Manag 374:102–110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reilly MJ, Spies TA, Littell J, Butz R, Kim J (2018) Vulnerability of vegetation to climate change and disturbance in the Northwest Forest Plan area. In: Synthesis of science to inform land management within the Northwest Forest Plan Area. USFS PNW GTR-966 vol 1

  • Restaino CM, Peterson DL, Littell J (2016) Increased water deficit decreases Douglas fir growth throughout western US forests. Proc Natl Acad Sci 113(34):9557–9562

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ritchie MW, Wing BM, Hamilton TA (2008) Stability of the large tree component in treated and untreated late-seral interior ponderosa pine stands. Can J For Res 38:919–923

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Safford HD, Van de Water KM (2014) Using fire return interval departure (FRID) analysis to map spatial and temporal changes in fire frequency on national forest lands in California. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, vol 59, p 266

  • Safford HD, van de Water K, Schmidt D (2011) California fire return interval departure (FRID) map metadata: description of purpose, data sources, database fields, and their calculations. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Region, Vallejo

    Google Scholar 

  • Sawyer JO (2007) Why are the Klamath Mountains and adjacent North Coast floristically diverse? Fremontia 35(3):3–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Sawyer JO, Thornburgh DA (1971) Vegetation types on granodiorite in the Klamath Mountains, California. Report to the Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, California PSW COOP-AID agreement supplement #10 unpublished report on file, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Albany, California

  • Sawyer JO, Thornburgh DA (1974) Subalpine and montane forests on granodiorite in the central Klamath Mountains of California. Unpublished report to Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Exp. Sta., Berkeley, California

  • Seager R, Hooks A, Williams AP, Cook B, Nakamura J, Henderson N (2015) Climatology, variability, and trends in the US vapor pressure deficit, an important fire-related meteorological quantity. J Appl Meteorol Climatol 54(6):1121–1141

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skakun RS, Wulder MA, Franklin SE (2003) Sensitivity of the thematic mapper enhanced wetness difference index to detect mountain pine beetle red-attack damage. Remote Sens Environ 86(4):433–443

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner CN (2003) Fire history of upper montane and subalpine lake basins in the Klamath Mountains of northern California. In: Proceedings of fire conference 2000: the first national congress on fire ecology, prevention and management, Misc. Pub. 13 Tall Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee, FL, pp 145–151

  • Skinner CN, Taylor AH, Agee JK (2006) Klamath mountain bioregion. In: Sugihara NG, van Wagtendonk JW, Shaffer KE, Fites-Kaufman J, Thode AE (eds) Fire in California’s ecosystems. The University of California Press, Berkeley, pp 170–194

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Stebbins GL, Major J (1965) Endemism and speciation in the California Flora. Ecol Monogr 35(1):1–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor AH (1993) Fire history and structure of red fir (Abies magnifica) forests, Swain Mountain Experimental Forest, Cascade Range, northeastern California. Can J For Res 23(8):1672–1678

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor AH (2000) Fire regimes and forest changes in mid and upper montane forests of the southern Cascades, Lassen Volcanic National Park, California, USA. J Biogeogr 27:87–104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor AH, Halpern CB (1991) The structure and dynamics of Abies magnifica forests in the southern Cascades Range, USA. J Veg Sci 2:189–200

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor AH, Skinner CN (1998) Fire history and landscape dynamics in a late-successional reserve, Klamath Mountains, California, USA. For Ecol Manag 111(2–3):285–301

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor AH, Skinner CN (2003) Spatial patterns and controls on historical fire regimes and forest structure in the Klamath Mountains. Ecol Appl 13(3):704–719

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van der Molen MK, Dolman AJ, Ciais P, Eglin T, Gobron N, Law BE, Meir P, Peters W, Phillips OL, Reichstein M, Chen T, Dekker SC, Doubková M, Friedl MA, Jung M, van den Hurk BJJM, de Jeu RAM, Kruijt B, Ohta T, Rebel KT, Plummer S, Seneviratne SI, Sitch S, Teuling AJ, van der Werf GR, Wang G (2011) Drought and ecosystem carbon cycling. Agric For Meteorol 151(7):765–773

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Gunst KJ, Weisberg PJ, Yang J, Fan Y (2016) Do denser forests have greater risk of tree mortality: a remote sensing analysis of density-dependent forest mortality. For Ecol Manag 359:19–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Mantgem PJ, Stephenson NL (2007) Apparent climatically induced increase of tree mortality rates in a temperate forest. Ecol Lett 10(10):909–916

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Mantgem PJ, Stephenson NL, Byrne JC, Daniels LD, Franklin JF, Ful PZ (2009) Widespread increase of tree mortality rates in the western United States. Science 323(5913):521–524

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vogelmann JE, Tolk B, Zhu Z (2009) Monitoring forest changes in the southwestern United States using multitemporal Landsat data. Remote Sens Environ 113(8):1739–1748

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wahl ER, Zorita E, Trouet V, Taylor AH (2019) Jet stream dynamics, hydroclimate, and fire in California from 1600 CE to present. Proc Natl Acad Sci 116(12):5393–5398

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Whittaker RH (1960) Vegetation of the Siskiyou mountains, Oregon and California. Ecol Monogr 30(3):279–338

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams DW, Liebhold AM (2002) Climate change and the outbreak ranges of two North American bark beetles. Agric For Entomol 4(2):87–99

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams AP, Allen CD, Macalady AK, Griffin D, Woodhouse C, Meko D, Swetnam T, Rauscher Seager R, Grissino-Mayer HD, Dean JS, Cook ER, Gangodagamage C, Cai M, McDowell NG (2013) Temperature as a potent driver of regional forest drought stress and tree mortality. Nat Clim Change 3(3):292–297

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wills RD, Stuart JD (1994) Fire history and stand development of a Douglas-fir/hardwood forest in northern California. Northwest Sci 68(3):205–212

    Google Scholar 

  • Wulder MA, White JC, Coops NC, Butson CR (2008) Multi-temporal analysis of high spatial resolution imagery for disturbance monitoring. Remote Sens Environ 112(6):2729–2740

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was funded in part through the US Forest Service (Agreement #11-CS-11051000-023) and the Agricultural Research Institute (Agreement 15-06-007). The authors would like to thank Dr. Buddhika Madurapperuma and Dr. Paul Bourdeau for their useful comments on the manuscript. Much thanks to Connor Adams, Harrison Stevens, Angelo DeMario, Arthur Grupe, Stefani Brandt, Addison Gross, Maria Friedman, Jenell Jackson, John Mola, Sam Johnson, James Adam Taylor, and Elizabeth Wu for their assistance in collecting field data.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, 1 Harpst Street, Arcata, CA, 95521, USA

    Drew S. Bost, Matthew J. Reilly & Erik S. Jules

  2. Department of Biological Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA

    Melissa H. DeSiervo

  3. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 507 25th Street, Ogden, UT, USA

    Zhiqiang Yang

  4. USDA Forest Service Pacific Southwest Region, 1330 Bayshore Way, Eureka, CA, 95501, USA

    Ramona J. Butz

  5. Department of Forestry and Wildland Resources, Humboldt State University, 1 Harpst Street, Arcata, CA, 95521, USA

    Ramona J. Butz

Authors
  1. Drew S. Bost
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Matthew J. Reilly
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Erik S. Jules
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Melissa H. DeSiervo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Zhiqiang Yang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Ramona J. Butz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Drew S. Bost.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOCX 12 kb)

Supplementary material 2 (TIFF 114 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Bost, D.S., Reilly, M.J., Jules, E.S. et al. Assessing spatial and temporal patterns of canopy decline across a diverse montane landscape in the Klamath Mountains, CA, USA using a 30-year Landsat time series. Landscape Ecol 34, 2599–2614 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-019-00907-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-019-00907-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation