Abstract
Intimate partner violence (IPV) results in numerous negative physical and mental health consequences. Research shows that many factors affect survivors’ help-seeking decisions. Previous studies were limited by small samples, and by excluding multiple forms of IPV consequences and multiple types of help sources. This study attempted to fill this gap by using a nationally representative dataset that collected data on multiple consequences of violence and formal sources of help. This study used the National Crime Victimization Survey to examine factors for female survivors’ help-seeking (n = 474). The main variables were formal help-seeking (medical, legal), types of victimization and consequences, and demographics. All were examined through logistic regression analyses. Black/African American survivors sought more formal help than their White counterparts. Sexually victimized survivors used less legal help than those victimized by physical violence. These results suggest that survivors’ formal help-seeking should be viewed in a broad health context, including their experienced victimization, subsequent medical needs, and the circumstances and conditions underlying their decision to seek a particular type of help. Future research needs to examine the circumstances and outcomes of both formal and informal help-seeking by racial/ethnic minorities. Law enforcement officers may be able to collaborate with medical care systems to ensure that survivors receive proper treatment. Future research is needed to better understand survivors’ help-seeking as navigating through complicated webs of their experienced victimization, subsequent medical needs, and the circumstances and conditions underlying their decision to seek which type of help.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Afifi, T. O., Enns, M. W., Cox, B. J., Asmundson, G. J. G., Stein, M. B., & Sareen, J. (2008). Population attributable fractions of psychiatric disorders and suicide ideation and attempts associated with adverse childhood experiences. American Journal of Public Health, 98(5), 946–952. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2007.120253.
Ansara, D. L., & Hindin, M. J. (2010). Formal and informal help-seeking associated with women’s and men’s experiences of intimate partner violence in Canada. Social Science & Medicine, 70(7), 1011–1018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.12.009.
Archer, J. (2000). Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 126(5), 651–680. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.126.5.651.
Arias, I., & Corso, P. (2005). Average cost per person victimized by an intimate partner of the opposite gender: A comparison of men and women. Violence and Victims, 20(4), 379–391. https://doi.org/10.1891/vivi.2005.20.4.379.
Bachman, R., & Coker, A. L. (1995). Police involvement in domestic violence: The interactive effects of victim injury, offender’s history of violence, and race. Violence and Victims, 10(2), 91–106. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.10.2.91.
Backes, B. L. (2015). Formal help-seeking among female victims of sexual and physical violence: Individual, interpersonal, and incident level predictors. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, Baltimore.
Barrett, B. J., & Pierre, M. S. (2011). Variations in women’s help seeking in response to intimate partner violence: Findings from a Canadian population-based study. Violence Against Women, 17(1), 47–70. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801210394273.
Beydoun, H. A., Beydoun, M. A., Kaufman, J. S., Lo, B., & Zonderman, A. B. (2012). Intimate partner violence against adult women and its association with major depressive disorder, depressive symptoms and postpartum depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Social Science & Medicine, 75(6), 959–975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.04.025.
Breiding, M. J., Chen, J., & Black, M. C. (2014). Intimate partner violence in the United States— 2010. Atlanta: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/cdc_nisvs_ipv_report_2013_v17_single_a.pdf.
Busch, A. L., & Rosenberg, M. S. (2004). Comparing women and men arrested for domestic violence: A preliminary report. Journal of Family Violence, 19, 49–57. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:jofv.0000011582.05558.2e.
Buzawa, E. S., Buzawa, C. G., & Stark, E. D. (2011). Responding to domestic violence: The integration of criminal justice and human services (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Caldwell, J. E., Swan, S. C., & Woodbrown, V. D. (2012). Gender differences in intimate partner violence outcomes. Psychology of Violence, 2(1), 42–57. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026296.
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). An overview of intimate partner violence in the United States– 2010 Findings. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/ipv-nisvs-factsheet-v5-a.pdf
Cheng, T. C., & Lo, C. C. (2015). Racial disparities in intimate partner violence and in seeking help with mental health. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(18), 3283–3307. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514555011.
Cho, H., Kim, I., & Velez-Ortiz, D. (2014). Factors associated with mental health service use among Latino and Asian Americans. Community Mental Health Journal, 50(8), 960–967. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-014-9719-6.
Cho, H., Shamrova, D., Han, J. B., & Levchenko, P. (2017). Patterns of intimate partner violence victimization and survivors’ help-seeking. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517715027.
Coker, A. L., Davis, K. E., Arias, I., Desai, S., Sanderson, M., Brandt, H. M., & Smith, P. H. (2002). Physical and mental health effects of intimate partner violence for men and women. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 23(4), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0091-7435(03)00136-1.
Coker, A., Reeder, C., Fadden, M., & Smith, P. (2004). Physical partner violence and Medicaid utilization and expenditures. Public Health Reports, 119(6), 557–567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phr.2004.09.005.
Daoud, N., Matheson, F. I., Pedersen, C., Hamilton-Wright, S., Minh, A., Zhang, J., & O’Campo, P. (2016). Pathways and trajectories linking housing instability and poor health among low-income women experiencing intimate partner violence: Toward a conceptual framework. Women & Health, 56(2), 208–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/03630242.2015.1086465.
Durfee, A., & Messing, J. T. (2012). Characteristics related to protection order use among victims of intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 18(6), 701–710. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801212454256.
Duterte, E. E., Bonomi, A. E., Kernic, M. A., Schiff, M. A., Thompson, R. S., & Rivara, F. P. (2008). Correlates of medical and legal help seeking among women reporting intimate partner violence. Journal of Women’s Health, 17(1), 85–95. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2007.0460.
Fanslow, J. L., & Robinson, E. M. (2010). Help-seeking behaviors and reasons for help seeking reported by a representative sample of women victims of intimate partner violence in New Zealand. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25(5), 929–951. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260509336963.
Felson, R. B., & Pare, P. P. (2005). The reporting of domestic violence and sexual assault by non-strangers to the public. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 67(3), 597–610. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2005.00156.x.
Fleet, C., & Hiebert-Murphy, D. (2013). Social support related to women who have remained with their partners after the physical violence has ceased. Journal of Family Violence, 28(3), 219–224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-013-9497-x.
Fleming, C. J. E., & Resick, P. A. (2017). Help-seeking behavior in survivors of intimate partner violence: Toward an integrated behavioral model of individual factors. Violence and Victims, 32(2), 195–209. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-15-00065.
Fleury, R. E., Sullivan, C. M., Bybee, D. I., Davidson, I. I., & William, S. (1998). Why don’t they just call the cops?: Reasons for differential police contact among women with abusive partners. Violence and Victims, 13(4), 333–346. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.13.4.333.
Flicker, S. M., Cerulli, C., Zhao, X., Tang, W., Watts, A., Xia, Y., & Talbot, N. L. (2011). Concomitant forms of abuse and help-seeking behavior among White, African American, and Latina women who experience intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 17(8), 1067–1085. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801211414846.
Glick, B., Johnson, S. & Pham, C. (2000). 1998 Oregon domestic violence needs assessment. Retrieved from https://www.dhs.state.or.us/caf/dv/1998_Oregon_Domestic_Violence_Needs_Assessment.pdf
Greenfeld, L. A., Rand, M. R., Craven, D., Klaus, P. A., Perkins, C. A., Ringel, C., … & Fox, J. A. (1998). Violence by intimates. Analysis of data on crimes by current or former spouses, boyfriends, and girlfriends. Retrieved from https://bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/vi.pdf
Henning, K. R., & Klesges, L. M. (2002). Utilization of counseling and supportive services by female victims of domestic abuse. Violence and Victims, 17, 623–636. https://doi.org/10.1891/vivi.17.5.623.33714.
Hewins, E., DiBella, B., & Mawla, J. (2013). Domestic violence and the role of health care providers. White paper. Retrieved from https://www.verizon.com/about/sites/default/files/WhitePaper-Domestic-Violence.pdf
Ingram, E. M. (2007). A comparison of help seeking between Latino and non-Latino victims of intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 13(2), 159–171. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801206296981.
Jang, Y., Chiriboga, D. A., & Okazaki, S. (2009). Attitudes toward mental health services: Age-group differences in Korean American adults. Aging & Mental Health, 13(1), 127–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607860802591070.
Johnson, D. M., & Zlotnick, C. (2007). Utilization of mental health treatment and other services by battered women in shelters. Psychiatric Services, 58(12), 1595–1597. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.58.12.1595.
Kar, H. L., & O’Leary, K. D. (2010). Gender symmetry or asymmetry in intimate partner victimization? Not an either/or answer. Partner Abuse, 1(2), 152–168. https://doi.org/10.1891/1946-6560.1.2.152.
Kaukinen, C. (2004). The help-seeking strategies of female violent-crime victims: The direct and conditional effects of race and the victim-offender relationship. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19(9), 967–990. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260504268000.
Kaukinen, C. E., Meyer, S., & Akers, C. (2013). Status compatibility and help-seeking behaviors among female intimate partner violence victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28(3), 577–601. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260512455516.
Kaylen, M. T., & Pridemore, W. A. (2015). Measuring violent victimization: Rural, suburban, and urban police notification and emergency room treatment. Journal of Rural Studies, 39, 239–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2014.11.013.
Lacey, K. K., McPherson, M. D., Samuel, P. S., Sears, K. P., & Head, D. (2013). The impact of different types of intimate partner violence on the mental and physical health of women in different ethnic groups. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28(2), 359–385. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260512454743.
Langton, L., Berzowsky, M., Krebs, C., & Smiley-McDonald, H. (2012). Victimization not reported to the police: 2006–2010. National Crime Victimization Survey: Special report. Retrieved from http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/vnrp0610.pdf
Larsen, S., & Hamberger, L. (2015). Men’s and women’s experience of IPV part II: A review of new developments in comparative studies in clinical populations. Journal of Family Violence, 30(8), 1007–1030. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-015-9730-x.
Liang, B., Goodman, L., Tummala-Narra, P., & Weintraub, S. (2005). A theoretical framework for understanding help-seeking processes among survivors of intimate partner violence. American Journal of Community Psychology, 36(1–2), 71–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-005-6233-6.
Lipsky, S., & Caetano, R. (2007). The role of race/ethnicity in the relationship between emergency department use and intimate partner violence: Findings from the 2002 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. American Journal of Public Health, 97(12), 2246–2252. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2006.091116.
Lucea, M. B., Stockman, J. K., Mana-Ay, M., Bertrand, D., Callwood, G. B., Coverston, C. R., Campbell, D. W., & Campbell, J. C. (2013). Factors influencing resource use by African American and African Caribbean women disclosing intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28(8), 1617–1641. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260512468326.
Macy, R., Nurius, P., Kernic, M., & Holt, V. (2005). Battered women’s profiles associated with service help-seeking efforts: Illuminating opportunities for intervention. Social Work Research, 29(3), 137–150. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/29.3.137.
Moffit, T., & Caspi, A. (1999). Findings about partner violence from the Dunedine Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
Morse, D. S., Lafleur, R., Fogarty, C. T., Mittal, M., & Cerulli, C. (2012). “They told me to leave”: How health care providers address intimate partner violence. Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, 25(3), 333–342. https://doi.org/10.3122/jabfm.2012.03.110193.
National Crime Victimization Survey Resource Guide. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/NACJD/NCVS/
Nurius, P., Macy, R., Nwabuzor, I., & Holt, V. (2011). Intimate partner survivors’ help-seeking and protection efforts: A person-oriented analysis. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26(3), 539–566. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510363422.
Perez, S., & Johnson, D. M. (2008). PTSD compromises battered women’s future safety. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23(5), 635–651. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260507313528.
Phelan, M. B., Hamberger, L. K., Guse, C. E., Edwards, S., Walczak, S., & Zosel, A. (2005). Domestic violence among male and female patients seeking emergency medical services. Violence and Victims, 20(2), 187–206. https://doi.org/10.1891/088667005780905623.
Ragavan, M., Bruce, J., Lucha, S., Jayaraman, T., Stein, H., & Chamberlain, L. (2017). The health of women and children after surviving intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 23(10), 1205–1227. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801216656833.
Reina, A. S., & Lohman, B. J. (2015). Barriers preventing Latina immigrants from seeking advocacy services for domestic violence victims: A qualitative analysis. Journal of Family Violence, 30(4), 479–488. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-015-9696-8.
Ross, J. (2012). Self-reported fear in partner violent relationships: Findings on gender differences from two samples. Psychology of Violence, 2, 58–74. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026285.
Sabina, C., Cuevas, C. A., & Lannen, E. (2014). The likelihood of Latino women to seek help in response to interpersonal victimization: An examination of individual, interpersonal and sociocultural influences. Psychosocial Intervention, 23(2), 95–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psi.2014.07.005.
Satyen, L., Rogic, A. C., & Supol, M. (2018). Intimate partner violence and help-seeking behaviour: A systematic review of cross-cultural differences. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 21, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-018-0803-9.
Straus, M. A., & Gelles, R. J. (1986). Societal change and change in family violence from 1975–1985 as revealed by two national surveys. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48, 465–479. https://doi.org/10.2307/352033.
Swan, S. C., & Sullivan, T. P. (2009). The resource utilization of women who use violence in intimate relationships. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24(6), 940–958. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508319365.
Sylaska, K. M., & Edwards, K. M. (2014). Disclosure of intimate partner violence to informal social support network members: A review of the literature. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 15(1), 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838013496335.
Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000). Extent, nature and consequences of intimate partner violence: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.
Trevillion, K., Oram, S., Feder, G., & Howard, L. M. (2012). Experiences of domestic violence and mental disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One, 7(12), e51740. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051740.
Tsui, V. (2014). Male victims of intimate partner abuse: Use and helpfulness of services. Social Work, 59(2), 121–130. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/swu007.
United States Department of Justice. Office of Justice Programs. Bureau of Justice Statistics. National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), Concatenated File, 1992–2014 [Data file and code book]. ICPSR36143-v1. Ann Arbor: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2016-03-01. Retrieved from https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/NACJD/studies/36143/version/1
Vasiliauskaite, Z. (2015). Help-seeking and perceived helpfulness of formal help sources for victims of domestic violence: An exploratory study. European Scientific Journal, 11(26), 1857–1881.
West, C. M., Kantor, G. K., & Jasinski, J. L. (1998). Sociodemographic predictors and cultural barriers to help-seeking behavior by Latina and Anglo American battered women. Violence and Victims, 13(4), 361–375. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.13.4.361.
Wolf, M. E., Ly, U., Hobart, M. A., & Kernic, M. A. (2003). Barriers to seeking police help for intimate partner violence. Journal of Family Violence, 18(2), 121–129. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022893231951.
Wright, C. V., & Johnson, D. M. (2009). Correlates for legal help-seeking: Contextual factors for battered women in shelter. Violence and Victims, 24(6), 771–785. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.24.6.771.
Yoshioka, M. R., Gilbert, L., El-Bassel, N., & Baig-Amin, M. (2003). Social support and disclosure of abuse: Comparing South Asian, African American, and Hispanic battered women. Journal of Family Violence, 18(3), 171–180. https://doi.org/10.1111/cfs.12455.
Young-Wolff, K. C., Hellmuth, J., Jaquier, V., Swan, S. C., Connell, C., & Sullivan, T. P. (2013). Patterns of resource utilization and mental health symptoms among women exposed to multiple types of victimization: A latent class analysis. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28(15), 3059–3083. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513488692.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Cho, H., Kwon, I., Shamrova, D. et al. Factors for Formal Help-Seeking among Female Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence. J Fam Viol 36, 143–152 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-019-00107-6
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-019-00107-6