Abstract
To understand Mexican heritage mothers’ positive emotional experiences raising their children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), we examined whether mothers’ positive emotions varied by their household income, educational attainment, and their occupational and marital status. We also examined how emotions varied by mothers’ interpersonal context (i.e., adults potentially available to provide support at various times of the day). Thirty-two Mexican heritage mothers who cared for at least one child with ASD completed five daily diary surveys over five days within a variety of interpersonal contexts. HLM analysis of 697 surveys showed that employed mothers reported less confidence than unemployed mothers (p < 0.05). Mothers who earned more than $25,000 annually reported being more confident (p < 0.05) and calmer (p < 0.01) than mothers who earned less than $15,000 annually. Mothers who experienced positive emotions (excitement, confidence, and calm) tended to report a higher household income and were more likely to be married. Notably, mothers’ education status did not predict positive emotional states possibly due to limited variability within the sample. Contrary to our expectation, mothers reported being more excited when they were alone with their child than when they were not with their child (p < 0.05), or when they were with their child and other family members (p < 0.01). This methodology provided a rich understanding of the heterogeneity of mothers’ positive emotional experiences in a population that is marginalized and understudied.
Highlights
-
This study used a time-sampling method to examine Mexican-heritage mothers’ positive emotional experiences during daily interactions with their children with autism spectrum disorder.
-
HLM analyses suggest that mothers with more financial resources and those who are married reported more positive emotional states throughout the day.
-
Mothers reported more positive emotions (i.e., excitement) when they were alone with their child than when they were with their child and other family members.
-
Autism interventions should incorporate activities in which mothers and their children can be alone together.
-
Interventions should include culturally meaningful daily routines that build on family capacity and cultural assets.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abbeduto, L., Seltzer, M. M., Shattuck, P., Krauss, M. W., Orsmond, G., & Murphy, M. M. (2004). Psychological well-being and coping in mothers of youths with autism, down syndrome, or fragile X syndrome. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 109, 237–254. https://doi.org/10.1352/08958017(2004)1092.0.CO;2.
Blacher, J., & Baker, B. L. (2007). Positive impact of intellectual disability on families. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 112(5), 330–348. https://doi.org/10.1352/0895-8017(2007)112[0330:PIOIDO]2.0.CO;2.
Blacher, J., & McIntyre, L. L. (2006). Syndrome specificity and behavioural disorders in young adults with intellectual disability: cultural differences in family impact. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50, 184–198. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2005.00768.x.
Bondy, A. S., & Frost, L. A. (1994). The picture exchange communication system. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 9, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/108835769400900301.
Boyd, B. (2002). Examining the relationship between stress and lack of social support in mothers of children with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 17, 208–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/10883576020170040301.
Bromley, J., Hare, D. J., Davison, K., & Emerson, E. (2004). Mothers supporting autistic spectrum disorders: social support, mental health status, and satisfaction with services. Autism, 8, 409–423. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361304047224.
Burke, M., Rios, K., Garcia, M., Sandman, L., Lopez, B., & Magaña, S. (2019). Examining the perspectives of Latino families of children with autism spectrum disorder towards advocacy. A Special Education Journal, 27, 201–214.
Carlson, V. J., & Harwood, R. L. (2003). Attachment, culture, and the caregiving system: the cultural patterning of everyday experiences among Anglo and Puerto Rican mother–infant pairs. Infant Mental Health Journal, 24, 53–73.
Casillas, N., Vigil, D., & Wang, H. T. (2017). Latino and non-Latino White parents’ experiences raising their child with ASD: an exploratory study. The Qualitative Report, 22, 2173–2195. https://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol22/iss8/6.
Castillo, L. G., Perez, F. V., Castillo, R., & Ghosheh, M. R. (2010). Construction and initial validation of the Marianismo Beliefs Scale. Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 23, 163–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515071003776036.
Cauce, A. M., & Domenech-Rodriguez, M. (2002). Latino families: myths and realities. In J. M. Contreras, K. A. Kerns & A. M. Neal-Barnett (Eds.), Latino children and families in the United States: current research and future directions (pp. 3–25). Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers/Greenwood Publishing Group.
Chavira, V., Lopez, S. R., Blacher, J., & Shapiro, J. (2000). Latina mothers’ attributions, emotions and reactions to the problem behaviors of their children with developmental disabilities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 41, 245–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00605.
Cohen, S. R., Holloway, S. D., Dominguez-Pareto, I., & Kuppermann, M. (2013). Receiving or believing in family support? Contributors to the life quality of Latino and non-Latino families of children with ID. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12016.
Cohen, S. R., Holloway, S. D., Dominguez-Pareto, I., & Kuppermann, M. (2015). Support and self-efficacy among Latino and White families of children with ID. American Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 120, 16–31. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-120.1.16.
Cohen, S. R., Miguel, J. (2018). Amor and social stigma: ASD beliefs among immigrant Mexican parents. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3457-x.
Cohen, S. R., Miguel, J., & Wishard Guerra, A. (2020). Childrearing routines among Mexican-heritage children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 24, 80–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361319849244.
Conger, R. D., & Conger, K. J. (2008). Understanding the process through which economic hardship influences families and children. In T. B. Heaton (Ed.), Handbook of families and poverty (pp. 64–81). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Larson, R. (1992). Validity and reliability of the experience sampling method. In M. W. de Vries (Ed.), The Experience of psychopathology: investigating mental disorders in their natural settings (pp. 43–57). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Dunn, M. E., Burbine, T., Bowers, C. A., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (2001). Moderators of stress in parents of children with autism. Community Mental Health Journal, 37, 39–52. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026592305436.
Dunn, W., Cox, J., Foster, L., Mische-Lawson, L., & Tanquary, J. (2012). Impact of a contextual intervention on child participation and parent competence among children with autism spectrum disorders: a pretest–posttest repeated-measures design. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 66(5), 520–528. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2012.004119.
Dyches, T. T., Smith, T. B., Korth, B. B., Roper, S. O., & Mandleco, B. (2012). Positive parenting of children with developmental disabilities: a meta-analysis. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 33, 2213–2220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2012.06.015.
Eisenberg, N., Gershoff, E. T., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Cumberland, A. J., Losoya, S. H., & Murphy, B. C. (2001). Mothers’ emotional expressivity and children’s behavior problems and social competence: mediation through children’s regulation. Developmental Psychology, 37, 475–490. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.37.4.475.
Eisenhower, A., & Blacher, J. (2006). Mothers of young adults with intellectual disability: multiple roles, ethnicity and well-being. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50(12), 905–916. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2006.00913.x.
Ekas, N., & Whitman, T. L. (2010). Autism symptom topography and maternal socioemotional functioning. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 115, 234–249. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1142-4.
Estes, A., Munson, J., Dawson, G., Koeler, E., Zhou, X., & Abbott, R. (2009). Parenting stress and psychological functioning among mothers of preschool children with autism and developmental delay. Autism, 13, 375–387. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361309105658.
Evans, G. W., & Kim, P. (2013). Childhood poverty, chronic stress, self-regulation, and coping. Child Development Perspectives, 7, 43–48. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12013.
Fountain, C., & Bearman, P. (2011). Risk as social context: immigration policy and autism in California. Sociological Forum, 26, 215–240. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1573-7861.2011.01238.x.
Fuller, B. F., & García-Coll, C. (2010). Learning from Latinos: contexts, families, and child development in motion. Developmental Psychology, 46, 559–565. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019412.
Girolametto, L., Verbey, M., & Tannock, R. (1994). Improving joint engagement in parent–child interaction: an intervention study. Journal of Early Intervention, 18, 155–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/105381519401800204.
Grinker, R. R., Kang-Yi, C. D., Ahmann, C., Beidas, R. S., Lagman, A., & Mandell, D. (2015). Cultural adaptation and translation of outreach materials on autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45, 2329–2336. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2397-6.
Grusec, J. E., Rudy, D., & Martini, T. (1997). Parenting cognitions and child constructs: an overview and implications for children’s internalization of values. In J. E. Grusec & L. Kuczynski (Eds.), Parenting and children’s internalization of values: a handbook of contemporary theory (pp. 259–282). New York: Wiley.
Hassall, R., Rose, J., & McDonald, J. (2005). Parenting stress in mothers of children with an intellectual disability: the effects of parental cognitions in relation to child characteristics and family support. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 49(6), 405–418. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2005.00673.x.
Hastings, R. P., & Taunt, H. M. (2002). Positive perceptions in families of children with disabilities. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 107(2), 116–127.
Ispa, J. M., Fine, M. A., Halgunseth, L. C., Harper, S., Robinson, J., Boyce, L., & Brady-Smith, C. (2004). Maternal intrusiveness, maternal warmth, and mother-toddler relationship outcomes: variables across low-income ethnic and acculturation groups. Child Development, 75, 1613–1631.
Kasari, C., Lawton, K., Shih, W., Barker, T. V., Landa, R., Lord, C., & Senturk, D. (2014). Caregiver-mediated intervention for low-resourced preschoolers with autism: an RCT. Pediatrics, 134, e72–e79. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-3229.
Kim, S., Holloway, S. D., Bempechat, J., & Li, J. (2018). Explaining adolescents’ affect: a time-use study of opportunities for support and autonomy across interpersonal contexts. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27, 2384–2393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1092-6.
Kuhn, J. C., & Carter, A. S. (2006). Maternal self-efficacy and associated parenting cognitions among mothers of children with autism. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76, 564–575. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.76.4.564.
Leigh, J. P., Grosse, S. D., Cassady, D., Melnikow, J., & Hertz-Picciotto, I. (2016). Spending by California’s Department of Developmental Services for persons with autism across demographic and expenditure categories. PLoS ONE. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0151970.
Leyendecker, B., Cabrera, N., Lembcke, H., Willard, J., Kohl, K., & Spiegler, O. (2018). Parenting in a new land: immigrant parents and the positive development of their children and youth. European Psychologist, 23, 57–71. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000316.
Lord, C., Rutter, M., DiLavore, P. C., & Risi, S. (2008). Autism diagnostic observation schedule: ADOS manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
Magaña, S., Seltzer, M. M., Krauss, M. W., & Taylor, S. J. (2004). Cultural context of caregiving: differences in depression between Puerto Rican and non-Latina white mothers of adults with mental retardation. Mental Retardation, 42(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1352/0047-6765(2004)422.0.CO;2.
Mahoney, G., & Perales, F. (2003). Using relationship-focused intervention to enhance the social-emotional functioning of young children with autism spectrum disorders. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 23, 77–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/02711214030230020301.
Martinez, O., Wu, E., Sadfort, T., Dodge, B., Carballo-Dieguez, A., Pinto, R., Rhodes, S. D., Moya, E., & Chavez-Baray, S. (2015). Evaluating the impact of immigration policies on health status among undocumented immigrants: a systematic review. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 17, 947–970.
Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., Fradley, E., & Tuckey, M. (2001). Rethinking maternal sensitivity: mothers’ comments on infants’ mental processes predict security of attachment at 12 months. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 42(5), 637–648. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00759.
Mistry, R. S., Lowe, E. D., Benner, A. D., & Chien, N. (2008). Expanding the family economic stress model: insights from a mixed-methods approach. Journal of Marriage and Family, 70, 196–209. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00471.x.
Ong, A. D., Bergeman, C. S., Bisconti, T. L., & Wallace, K. A. (2006). Psychological resilience, positive emotions, and successful adaptation to stress in later life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 730–749. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.4.730.
Pottie, C. G., Cohen, J., & Ingram, K. M. (2009). Parenting a child with autism: contextual factors associated with enhanced daily parental mood. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 34, 419–429. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsn094.
Pottie, C. G., & Ingram, K. M. (2008). Daily stress, coping, and well-being in parents of children with autism: a multilevel modeling approach. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 855–864. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013604.
Rabe-Hesketh, S., & Skrondal, A. (2005). Multilevel and longitudinal modeling using stata. College Station, TX: Stata Press.
Seltzer, M. M., Almeida, D. M., Greenberg, J., Savla, J., Stawski, R. S., Hong, J., & Taylor, J. L. (2009). Psychosocial and biological markers of daily lives of midlife parents of children with disabilities. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 50, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/002214650905000101.
Siller, M., & Sigman, M. (2002). The behaviors of parents of children with autism predict the subsequent development of their children’s communication. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32, 77–89. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1014884404276 .
Siller, M., & Sigman, M. (2008). Modeling longitudinal change in the language abilities of children with autism: parent behaviors and child characteristics as predictors of change. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1691–1704. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013771.
Skinner, D. G., Correa, V., Skinner, M., & Bailey, Jr, D. B. (2001). Role of religion in the lives of Latino families of young children with developmental delays. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 106(4), 297–313.
Smith, L. E., Greenberg, J. S., Seltzer, M. M., & Hong, J. (2008). Symptoms and behavior problems of adolescents and adults with autism: effects of mother-child relationship quality, warmth, and praise. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 113, 387–402. https://doi.org/10.1352/2008.113:387-402.
Smith, L. E., Hong, J., Seltzer, M. M., Greenber, J. S., Almeida, D., & & Bishop, S. L. (2010). Daily experiences among mothers of adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 167–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0844-y.
Smyth, A. R., Bell, S. C., Bojcin, S., Bryon, M., Duff, A., Flume, P., & Sermet-Gaudelus, I. (2014). European Cystic Fibrosis Society standards of care: best practice guidelines. Journal of Cystic Fibrosis, 13, S23–S42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcf.2014.03.010.
StataCorp. (2017). Stata statistical software: release 15. College Station, TX: StataCorp LLC.
Tarabulsy, G. M., Bernier, A., Provost, M. A., Maranda, J., Larose, S., Moss, E., & Tessier, R. (2005). Another look inside the gap: ecological contributions to the transmission of attachment in a sample of adolescent mother-infant dyads. Developmental Psychology, 41(1), 212–224. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.1.212.
Tienda, M., & Mitchell, F. (2006). Multiple origins, uncertain destinies: hispanics and the american future. Panel on Hispanics in the United States. Washington, DC: Committee on Population, Division of Behavior and Social Sciences and Education, National Academies Press.
Weller, S. C. (2007). Cultural consensus theory: applications and frequently asked questions. Field Methods, 19, 339–368. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X07303502.
Zautra, A., Smith, B., Affleck, G., & Tennen, H. (2001). Examinations of chronic pain and affect relationships: applications of a dynamic model of affect. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69(5), 786. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006X.69.5.786.
Zhou, T., & Yi, C. (2014). Parenting styles and parents’ perspectives on how their own emotions affect the functioning of children with autism spectrum disorders. Family Process, 53, 67–79. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12058.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
S.R.C. conceptualized the paper, collected and analyzed the data, and wrote the paper. H.K.L. collaborated in running analyses and writing and editing the final paper. S.K. collaborated in creating tables, running analyses, and writing and editing the final paper. A.W.G. collaborated in interpreting the data and writing and editing the final paper.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
All procedures in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of University of California, San Diego research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Cohen, S.R., Lee, H.K., Kim, S. et al. A Time-use Study of Immigrant Mothers’ Positive Emotions Raising a Child with ASD. J Child Fam Stud 29, 2364–2376 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01732-2
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01732-2