Abstract
The objective of this investigation was to examine the associations among neighborhood conditions, neighborhood collective efficacy, family economic disadvantage, parental control behaviors, and children’s behavioral outcomes using multilevel and cross-level analyses. The proposed conceptual model incorporated propositions advanced by social disorganization theory, the structural-process model, as well as the Family Stress Model. Data were collected from a nationally representative sample of 1,337 families with children between 3 and 6 years (668 boys) drawn from 45 communities in Trinidad and Tobago. Neighborhood level indicators were assessed using census as well as parent reports whereas individual level constructs were assessed using parent reports. Findings indicated support for the Family Stress Model in that harsh punishment and parental monitoring functioned as mediators of the relationship between family economic disadvantage and behavioral difficulties (parental monitoring for prosocial behaviors). Findings from the multilevel analyses indicated that the relationship between neighborhood infrastructure deprivation and children’s behavioral difficulties and prosocial behaviors was mediated through neighborhood collective efficacy and parental harsh punishment. Cross-level interactions indicated that neighborhood collective efficacy buffered the relationship between parental discipline, monitoring, harsh discipline and behavioral difficulties. Given the importance of communities and families in influencing children’s behavioral outcomes, due consideration must be given to utilizing multilevel and cross-level perspectives both in research as well as in the development of intervention programs. Policies and programs designed to improve neighborhoods conditions, promote neighborhood collective efficacy, and advance the socioeconomic opportunities for families can help enhance the well-being of children.
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Notes
Gini coefficient is a statistical indicator of the inequality of income distribution within a nation. A value of 0 indicates equal income distribution and a value of 1 indicates unequal income distribution.
The term “majority world” was coined by Cigdem Kagitcibasi (1996) to refer to developing and less developed countries (characterized by problems of poverty, education, limited economic development, and disproportionate wealth distribution). This term is considered a more appropriate and sensitive term to use when referring to countries that are not in the category of developed countries.
Trinidad and Tobago’s population of 1.26 million is concentrated within less than 50 % of the land area available for residential and commercial purposes. According to the Central Statistical Office of Trinidad and Tobago (TTCSO), neighborhoods include areas that have historically belonged together (e.g., villages) (Wall 2007). In this investigation, the size of these TTCSO defined neighborhoods were considered adequate to capture both inter and intra community variations. The 2000 Trinidad and Tobago Census data were drawn from http://www.cso.gov.tt/statistics
When multiple caregivers were present, one caregiver was randomly selected to be interviewed.
TTD$5,000 monthly family income is considered by the Trinidad and Tobago government to be a marker for economic need. The government provides aid such as housing subsidies for those earning below this amount (www.tt.connect.gov.tt/gortt/portal/ttconnect).
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Acknowledgements
Mikey Bedasie assisted in the recruitment of the sample and in hiring enumerators for the adult interviews and childhood assessments. Dr. Bheshem Ramlal provided general guidance during the project and assisted us with issues of sample selection. Staff members at the FDCRC and the School of Education at the University of the West Indies were instrumental in duplicating the questionnaires and assisting in the logistics of getting the study off the ground. Mr. David Thomas and his staff at FDCRC were involved in data verification and cleaning. A special thanks to the families and children who permitted us to look at different aspects of their daily life.
Funding
This work was supported by funds from the University of the West Indies, St Augustine. Additional support was provided by the College of Human Ecology at Syracuse University to Ambika Krishnakumar, Lutchmie Narine, and Jaipaul L. Roopnarine.
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Krishnakumar, A., Narine, L., Roopnarine, J.L. et al. Multilevel and Cross-Level Effects of Neighborhood and Family Influences on Children’s Behavioral Outcomes in Trinidad and Tobago: The Intervening Role of Parental Control. J Abnorm Child Psychol 42, 1057–1068 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9852-2
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9852-2