Abstract
This study examined the effects of a two-year maintenance treatment assessed at 1 and 2 years following Parent–child Interaction Therapy (PCIT). Sixty-one of 100 clinic-referred children (M age = 4 years, 4 months) originally diagnosed with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) completed the standard treatment and were then randomized to PCIT maintenance treatment (MT) or to an assessment-only follow-up condition (AO). Rating scale and observational measures from fathers, mothers, and children were collected before and after standard treatment and at one- and two-year follow-up assessments. Maintenance treatment involved monthly telephone contacts from the original therapist focused on relapse prevention based on principles of PCIT. At the two-year follow-up, MT families showed few changes from post-treatment, as expected. However, the expected decrements for AO control families were not seen. Few differences between MT and AO were found at either follow-up assessment, and there were no significant differences in the rates of change during follow-up. The maintenance of gains among AO families may have resulted from the continuous enhancement of standard treatment or from inadvertent reinforcement for maintenance provided by the assessments of change alone.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abidin, R. (1995). Parenting stress index manual (3rd ed.). Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the child behavior Checklist/4–18 and 1991 profile. Burlington: University of Vermont Department of Psychiatry.
Achenbach, T. M. (1992). Manual for the child behavior Checklist/2–3 and 1992 profile. Burlington: University of Vermont Department of Psychiatry.
Anderson, N. (2001). Empirical direction in design and analysis. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Baer, R. A., Williams, J., Osnes, P. G., & Stokes, T. F. (1984). Delayed reinforcement as an indiscriminable contingency in verbal/nonverbal correspondence training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 17, 429–440.
Baumrind, D. (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 75, 43–88.
Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. Journal of Early Adolescence, 11, 56–95.
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., Ball, R., & Ranieri, W. F. (1996a). Comparison of beck depression inventories–IA and –II in psychiatric outpatients. Journal of Personality Assessment, 67, 588–597. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa6703_13.
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996b). Manual for the beck depression inventory-II. San Antonio: Psychological Corporation.
Belsky, J., Woodworth, S., & Crnic, K. (1996). Troubled family interaction during toddlerhood. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 477–495. doi:10.1017/S0954579400007227.
Boggs, S. R., Eyberg, S. M., Edwards, D. L., Rayfield, A., Jacobs, J., Bagner, D., et al. (2004). Outcomes of parent–child interaction therapy: a comparison of treatment completers and study dropouts 1 to 3 years later. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 26, 1–22. doi:10.1300/J019v26n04_01.
Campbell, S. B. (2002). Follow-up and outcome studies. In Behavior problems in preschool children: Clinical and developmental issues (2nd ed., pp. 241–275). New York: Guilford.
Clarke, G. N., Rohde, P., Lewinsohn, P. M., Hops, H., & Seeley, J. R. (1999). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of adolescent depression: efficacy of acute group treatment and booster sessions. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 272–279.
Crnic, K. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (1990). Minor parenting stresses with young children. Child Development, 61, 1628–1637. doi:10.2307/1130770.
Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, L. M. (1997). Examiner’s manual for the PPVT-III: Peabody picture vocabulary test (3rd ed.). Circle Pines: American Guidance Services.
Eisenstadt, T. H., Eyberg, S. M., McNeil, C. B., Newcomb, K., & Funderburk, B. (1993). Parent–child interaction therapy with behavior problem children: relative effectiveness of two stages and overall treatment outcome. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 22, 42–51. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2201_4.
Eyberg, S. M. (1999a). PCIT session outlines and integrity check forms. Unpublished manuscript. Gainesville: University of Florida.
Eyberg, S. M. (1999b). PCIT maintenance treatment manual. Unpublished manuscript. Gainesville: University of Florida.
Eyberg, S. M., Funderburk, B. W., Hembree-Kigin, T., McNeil, C. B., Querido, J., & Hood, K. K. (2001). Parent–child interaction therapy with behavior problem children: one- and two-year maintenance of treatment effects in the family. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 23, 1–20. doi:10.1300/J019v23n04_01.
Eyberg, S. M., Nelson, M. M., & Boggs, S. R. (2008). Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents with disruptive behavior. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37, 215–237.
Eyberg, S. M., Nelson, M. M., Ginn, N., Bhuiyan, & Boggs, S. R. (2013). Manual for the dyadic parent – child interaction coding system. Gainesville: PCIT International.
Eyberg, S. M., & Pincus, D. (1999). Manual for the Eyberg child behavior inventory and the Sutter-Eyberg student behavior inventory-revised. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Fernandez, M., & Eyberg, S. (2009). Predicting treatment and follow-up attrition in parent-child interaction therapy. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 431–441.
Fowler, P. C. (1980). Family environment and early behavioral development: a structural analysis of dependencies. Psychological Reports, 47, 611–617. doi:10.2466/pr0.1980.47.2.611.
Frick, P. J., & Nigg, J. T. (2012). Current issues in the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 8, 77–107. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032511-143150.
Funderburk, B. W., Eyberg, S. M., Newcomb, K., McNeil, C. B., Hembree-Kigin, T., & Capage, L. (1998). Parent–child interaction therapy with behavior problem children: maintenance of treatment effects in the school setting. Child and Family Behavior Therapy, 20, 17–38. doi:10.1300/J019v20n02_02.
Gau, S. S., Chong, M. Y., Yang, P., Yen, C. F., Liang, K. Y., et al. (2007). Psychiatric and psychosocial predictors of substance use disorders among adolescents: longitudinal study. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 190, 42–48. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.106.022871.
Harwood, M. D., O’Brien, K. A., Carter, C. G., & Eyberg, S. M. (2009). Mental health services for preschool children in primary care: a survey of maternal attitudes and beliefs. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 34, 760–768. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/isn128.
Hollingshead. (1975). Four-factor index of social status. Unpublished manuscript. New Haven: Yale University.
Hood, K. K., & Eyberg, S. M. (2003). Outcomes of Parent–child interaction therapy: mothers’ reports of maintenance 3 to 6 years after treatment. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 419–429. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3203_10.
Jensen, P. S., Eaton Hoagwood, K., Roper, M., Arnold, L. E., Odbert, C., Crowe, M., et al. (1997). Services for children and adolescents- parent interview (SCA-PI). Bethesda: National Institutes of Mental Health.
Jensen, P. S., Watanabe, H. D., Richters, J. E., Roper, M., Hibbs, E. D., Salzberg, A. D., & Liu, S. (1996). Scales, diagnoses, and child psychopathology: II. Comparing the CBCL and the DISC against external validators. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 151–168. doi:10.1007/BF01441482.
Kazdin, A. E. (1997). Practitioner review: psychosocial treatments for conduct disorder in children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1349–1356. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01851.x.
Kirk, R. (2012). Experimental design: Procedures for the behavioral sciences. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Kolko, D.J., Lindhiem, O., Hart, J., & Bukstein, O.G. (2013). Evaluation of a booster intervention three years after acute treatment for early-onset disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology.
Lavigne, J. V., LeBailly, S. A., Hopkins, J., Gouze, K. R., & Binns, H. J. (2009). The prevalence of ADHD, ODD, depression, and anxiety in a community sample of 4-year-olds. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 38, 315–328. doi:10.1080/15374410902851382.
Loeber, R., Burke, J. D., Lahey, B. B., Winters, A., & Zera, M. (2000a). Oppositional defiant and conduct disorder: a review of the past 10 years, part I. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1468–1484. doi:10.1097/00004583-200012000-00007.
Loeber, R., Green, S. M., Lahey, B. B., Frick, P. J., & McBurnett, K. (2000b). Findings on disruptive behavior disorders from the first decade of the developmental trends study. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 3, 37–60. doi:10.1023/A:1009567419190.
McDonald, M. R., & Budd, K. S. (1983). “Booster shots” following didactic parent training: effects of follow-up using graphic feedback and instructions. Behavior Modification, 7, 211–223.
McMahon, R. J., & Estes, A. M. (1997). Conduct problems. In E. J. Mash & L. G. Terdal (Eds.), Assessment of childhood disorders (3rd ed., pp. 130–193). New York: Guilford Press.
Moos, B. R., & Moos, B. S. (1986). The family environment scale manual (Rev ed.). Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Nock, M. K., & Ferriter, C. (2005). Parent management of attendance and adherence in child and adolescent therapy: a conceptual and empirical review. Clinical Child and Family Therapy Review, 8, 149–166. doi:10.1007/s10567-005-4753-0.
Olsen, S. L., Bates, J. E., & Bayles, K. (1990). Early antecedents of childhood impulsivity: the role of parent–child interaction, cognitive competence, and temperament. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 18, 317–334. doi:10.1007/BF00916568.
Patterson, G. (1974). Interventions for boys with conduct problems: multiple settings, treatments, and criteria. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 471–481.
Prinz, R. J., & Miller, G. E. (1994). Family-based treatment for childhood antisocial behavior: experimental influences on dropout and engagement. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 645–650. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.62.3.645.
Schuhmann, E. M., Foote, R. C., Eyberg, S. M., Boggs, S. R., & Algina, J. A. (1998). Efficacy of parent–child interaction therapy: interim report of a randomized trial with short-term maintenance. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 34–45. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2701_4.
Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Lucas, C. P., Dulcan, M. K., & Schwab-Stone, M. E. (2000). NIMH diagnostic interview schedule for children version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 28–38. doi:10.1097/00004583-200001000-00014.
Acknowledgements
We thank the members of the Child Study Laboratory at the University of Florida for their contributions to this study.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Institute of Mental of the National Institutes of Health under award number RO1MH60632. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Eyberg, S., Boggs, S. & Jaccard, J. Does Maintenance Treatment Matter?. J Abnorm Child Psychol 42, 355–366 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9842-9
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9842-9