Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Can Executive Functions Explain the Relationship Between Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Social Adjustment?

  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examined the ability of executive functions (EF) to account for the relationship between Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) status and social adjustment as indexed by parent and teacher report and by performance on a standardized observational “chat room” task. Children with the Combined subtype (ADHD-C; n = 23), the Primarily Inattentive Subtype (ADHD-I; n = 33), and non-ADHD controls (n = 36) participated. EF did not mediate the relationship between ADHD status and parent or teacher report of social adjustment. EF accounted for about 40–50% of the variance between ADHD status and the ability of children to detect subtle verbal cues as well as memory for the conversation in the chat room task, but did not mediate the relationship between ADHD and the number of prosocial, hostile, or on-topic statements that were made. Results are consistent with other recent reports, and suggest that the role of EF deficits in the production of social skill deficits in ADHD may not be as prominent as is typically assumed. The implications for the development of intervention programs designed to target core cognitive etiologic factors are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bagwell, C. L., Molina, B. S. G., Pelham, W. E., & Hoza, B. (2001). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and problems in peer relations: predictions from childhood to adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(11), 1285–1292. doi:10.1097/00004583-200111000-00008.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barbosa, J., Schachar, R., & Tannock, R. (2001). Performance differences of ADHD subtypes on the Rey-Osterrieth complex figure. Brain and Cognition, 47(1–2), 189–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121(1), 65–94. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A., Edwards, G., Laneri, M., Fletcher, K., & Metevia, L. (2001). Executive functioning, temporal discounting, and sense of time in adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29(6), 541–556. doi:10.1023/A:1012233310098.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnett, W. S., Jung, K., Yarosz, D. J., Thomas, J., Hornbeck, A., Stechuk, R., et al. (2008). Educational effects of the Tools of the Mind curriculum: A randomized trial. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23, 299–313.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategoc, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bauermeister, J. J., Matos, M., Reina, G., Salas, C. C., Martinez, J. V., Cumba, E., et al. (2005). Comparison of the DSM-lV combined and inattentive types of ADHD in a school-based sample of Latino/Hispanic children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 46(2), 166–179. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00343.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bedard, A. C., Nichols, S., Barbosa, J. A., Schachar, R., Logan, G. D., & Tannock, R. (2002). The development of selective inhibitory control across the life span. Developmental Neuropsychology, 21(1), 93–111. doi:10.1207/S15326942DN2101_5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman, J., Monuteaux, M. C., Doyle, A. E., Seidman, L. J., Wilens, T. E., Ferrero, F., et al. (2004). Impact of executive function deficits and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on academic outcomes in children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(5), 757–766. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.72.5.757.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bierman, K. L., Nix, R. L., Greenberg, M. T., Blair, C., & Domitrovich, C. E. (2008). Executive functions and school readiness intervention: impact, moderation, and mediation in the Head Start REDI program. Development and Psychopathology, 20(3), 821–843. doi:10.1017/S0954579408000394.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (2007). Tools of the mind: The Vygotskian approach to early childhood education (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos, F. X., & Tannock, R. (2002). Neuroscience of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the search for endophenotypes. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 3(8), 617–628.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos, F. X., Lee, P. P., Sharp, W., Jeffries, N. O., Greenstein, D. K., Clasen, L. S., et al. (2002). Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Jama-Journal of the American Medical Association, 288(14), 1740–1748. doi:10.1001/jama.288.14.1740.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chhabildas, N., Pennington, B. F., & Willcutt, E. G. (2001). A comparison of the neuropsychological profiles of the DSM-IV subtypes of ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29(6), 529–540. doi:10.1023/A:1012281226028.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chi, T. C., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2002). Mother-child relationships of children with ADHD: The role of maternal depressive symptoms and depression-related distortions. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30(4), 387–400. doi:10.1023/A:1015770025043.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, C., Prior, M., & Kinsella, G. (2002). The relationship between executive function abilities, adaptive behaviour, and academic achievement in children with externalising behaviour problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 43(6), 785–796. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00084.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1973). Eta-squared and partial eta-squared in fixed factor ANOVA designs. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 33(1), 107–112. doi:10.1177/001316447303300111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Demaray, M. K., Ruffalo, S. L., Carlson, J., Busse, R. T., Olson, A. E., McManus, S. M., et al. (1995). Social skills assessment: a comparative evaluation of six published rating scales. School Psychology Review, 24(4), 648–671.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dennis, T. A., Brotman, L. M., Huang, K. Y., & Gouley, K. K. (2007). Effortful control, social competence, and adjustment problems in children at risk for psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36(3), 442–454.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diamantopoulou, S., Rydell, A. M., Thorell, L. B., & Bohlin, G. (2007). Impact of executive functioning and symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder on children’s peer relations and school performance. Developmental Neuropsychology, 32(1), 521–542.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, A., Barnett, W. S., Thomas, J., & Munro, S. (2007). The early years—preschool program improves cognitive control. Science, 318(5855), 1387–1388. doi:10.1126/science.1151148.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dishion, T. (1990). The peer context of troublesome child and adolescent behavior. In P. Leone (Ed.), Understanding troubled and troubling youth (vol. Vol. 116, (pp. 128–153)). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dodge, K. A., Lansford, J. E., Burks, V. S., Bates, J. E., Pettit, G. S., Fontaine, R., et al. (2003). Peer rejection and social information-processing factors in the development of aggressive behavior problems in children. Child Development, 74(2), 374–393. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.7402004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Domitrovich, C. E., Greenberg, M. T., Cortes, R., & Kusche, C. (1999). Manual for the Preschool PATHS Curriculum. Pennsylvania State University.

  • Doyle, A. E., Biederman, J., Seidman, L. J., Weber, W., & Faraone, S. V. (2000). Diagnostic efficiency of neuropsychological test scores for discriminating boys with and without attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(3), 477–488. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.68.3.477.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A. G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: a flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, S. R., Rapport, L. J., Lumley, M., Tzelepis, A., VanVoorhis, A., Stettner, L., et al. (2003). Aspects of social and emotional competence in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychology, 17(1), 50–58. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.17.1.50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gadow, K., & Sprafkin, J. (2004). Child symptom inventories manual. Checkmate Plus: Stonybrook, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greene, R. W., Biederman, J., Faraone, S. V., Sienna, M., & Garcia-Jetton, J. (1997). Adolescent outcome of boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and social disability: results from a 4-year longitudinal follow-up study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65(5), 758–767. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.65.5.758.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gresham, F., & Elliot, S. (1990). Social skills rating system. Circle Pines, MN: Assistance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gresham, F. M., MacMillan, D. L., Bocian, K. M., Ward, S. L., & Forness, S. R. (1998). Comorbidity of hyperactivity-impulsivity-inattention and conduct problems: risk factors in social, affective, and academic domains. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26(5), 393–406. doi:10.1023/A:1021908024028.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grodzinsky, G. M., & Barkley, R. A. (1999). Predictive power of frontal lobe tests in the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 13(1), 12–21. doi:10.1076/clin.13.1.12.1983.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw, S. P. (2002). Preadolescent girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: I. Background characteristics, cornorbidity, cognitive and social functioning, and parenting practices. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(5), 1086–1098. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.70.5.1086.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw, S. P., & Melnick, S. M. (1995). Peer relationships in boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with and without comorbid aggression. Development and Psychopathology, 7(4), 627–647.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw, S. P., & Nigg, J. T. (1999). Behavior rating scales in the assessment of disruptive behavior problems in childhood. In D. Shaffer, C. P. Lucas, & J. E. Richters (Eds.), Diagnostic assessment in child and adolescent psychopathology (pp. 1991–1126). New York, NY, US: Guilford. xviii, 1398. pp. 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw, S. P., Carte, E. T., Sami, N., Treuting, J. J., & Zupan, B. A. (2002). Preadolescent girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: II. Neuropsychological performance in relation to subtypes and individual classification. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(5), 1099–1111. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.70.5.1099.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw, S. P., Carte, E. T., Fan, C., Jassy, J. S., & Owens, E. B. (2007). Neuropsychological functioning of girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder followed prospectively into adolescence: evidence for continuing deficits? Neuropsychology, 21(2), 263–273. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.21.2.263.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holmbeck, G. N. (2002). Post-hoc probing of significant moderational and mediational effects in studies of pediatric populations. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 27(1), 87–96. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/27.1.87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoza, B., Mrug, S., Gerdes, A. C., Hinshaw, S. P., Bukowski, W. M., & Gold, J. A. (2005). What aspects of peer relationships are impaired in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(3), 411–423. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.73.3.411.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huang-Pollock, C. L., Mikami, A. Y., Pfiffner, L., & McBurnett, K. (2007). ADHD subtype differences in motivational responsivity but not inhibitory control: evidence from a reward-based variation of the stop signal paradigm. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36(2), 127–136.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hymel, S., Wagner, E., & Butler, L. J. (1990). Reputational bias: View from the peer group. In S. R. Asher, & J. D. Coie (Eds.), Peer rejection in childhood. Cambridge studies in social and emotional development (pp. 1156–1186). New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press. xii, 1417. pp. (1990).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kao, G., & Joyner, K. (2004). Do race and ethnicity matter among friends? Activities among interracial, interethnic, and intraethnic adolescent friends. The Sociological Quarterly, 45, 557–573. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2004.tb02303.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Brent, D., Rao, U., Flynn, C., Moreci, P., et al. (1997). Schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children present and lifetime version (K-SADS-PL): initial reliability and validity data. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(7), 980–988. doi:10.1097/00004583-199707000-00021.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ladd, G. W., & Mize, J. (1983). A cognitive social-leanring model of social skill training. Psychological Review, 90(2), 127–157. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.90.2.127.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lahey, B. B., Applegate, B., McBurnett, K., Biederman, J., Greenhill, L., Hynd, G. W., et al. (1994). DSM-IV field trials for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 151(11), 1673–1685.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lezak, M. D., Howieson, D. B., Loring, D. W., Hannay, H. J., & Fischer, J. S. (2004). Neuropsychological assessment (4th ed.). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press (2004) xiv, pp. 1016.

    Google Scholar 

  • Logan, G. (1994). On the ability to inhibit thought and action: A users’ guide to the stop signal paradigm. In D. Dagenbach, & T. H. Carr (Eds.), Inhibitory processes in attention, memory, and language (pp. 189–239). San Diego, CA: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackinnon, D. P., & Dwyer, J. H. (1993). Estimating mediated effects in prevention studies. Evaluation Review, 17(2), 144–158. doi:10.1177/0193841X9301700202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maedgen, J. W., & Carlson, C. L. (2000). Social functioning and emotional regulation in the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder subtypes. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29(1), 30–42. doi:10.1207/S15374424jccp2901_4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martinussen, R., Hayden, J., Hogg-Johnson, S., & Tannock, R. (2005). A meta-analysis of working memory impairments in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(4), 377–384. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000153228.72591.73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Melnick, S. M., & Hinshaw, S. P. (1996). What they want and what they get: the social goals of boys with ADHD and comparison boys. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24(2), 169–185. doi:10.1007/BF01441483.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyers, J., & Meyers, K. (1995). Rey complex figure test and recognition trial: Professional manual. Florida: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mikami, A. Y., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2006). Resilient adolescent adjustment among girls: buffers of childhood peer rejection and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34(6), 825–839. doi:10.1007/s10802-006-9062-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mikami, A. Y., Chi, T. C., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2004). Behavior ratings and observations of externalizing symptoms in girls: the role of child popularity with adults. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(3), 151–163. doi:10.1023/B:JOBA.0000022107.47515.85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mikami, A. Y., Huang-Pollock, C. L., Pfiffner, L. J., McBurnett, K., & Hangai, D. (2007). Social skills differences among attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder types in a chat room assessment task. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(4), 509–521. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9108-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Milich, R., Balentine, A. C., & Lynam, D. R. (2001). ADHD combined type and ADHD predominantly inattentive type are distinct and unrelated disorders. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 8(4), 463–488. doi:10.1093/clipsy/8.4.463.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T. (2001). Is ADHD a disinhibitory disorder? Psychological Bulletin, 127, 571–598.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T., & Huang-Pollock, C. L. (2003). An early onset model of the role of executive functions and intelligence in conduct disorder/delinquency. In B. Lahey, T. Moffitt, & A. Caspi (Eds.), The causes of conduct disorder and serious juvenile delinquency (pp. 227–253). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T., & Casey, B. J. (2005). An integrative theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder based on the cognitive and affective neurosciences. Development and Psychopathology, 17(3), 785–806. doi:10.1017/S0954579405050376.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T., Quamma, J. P., Greenberg, M. T., & Kusche, C. A. (1999). A two-year longitudinal study of neuropsychological and cognitive performance in relation to behavioral problems and competencies in elementary school children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 27(1), 51–63. doi:10.1023/A:1022614407893.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T., Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2005). Causal heterogeneity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Do we need neuropsychologically impaired subtypes? Biological Psychiatry, 57(11), 1224–1230. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.08.025.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oosterlaan, J., Scheres, A., & Sergeant, J. A. (2005). Which executive functioning deficits are associated with AD/HD, ODD/CD and comorbid AD/HD plus ODD/CD? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33(1), 69–85. doi:10.1007/s10802-005-0935-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pelham, W. E., & Bender, M. E. (1982). Peer relationships in hyperactive children: Description and treatment. In K. D. Gadow, & I. Bailer (Eds.), Advances in learning and behavioral disabilities (vol. Vol. 1, (pp. 365–436)). Greenwich, CT: JAI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pfiffner, L. (2002). Peer Relations Scale. University of California, San Francisco.

  • Pfiffner, L. J., Calzada, E., & McBurnett, K. (2000). Interventions to enhance social competence. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 9(3), 689.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36(4), 717–731.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quay, H. C. (1988). The behavioral reward and inhibition systems in childhood behavior disorder. In L. M. Bloomingdale (Ed.), Attention deficit disorder: New research in treatment, psychopharmacology, and attention (pp. 176-186). New York: Pergamon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riggs, N. R., Greenberg, M. T., Kusche, C. A., & Pentz, M. A. (2006a). The mediational role of neurocognition in the behavioral outcomes of a social-emotional prevention program in elementary school students: effects of the PATHS curriculum. Prevention Science, 7(1), 91–102. doi:10.1007/s11121-005-0022-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riggs, N. R., Jahromi, L. B., Razza, R. P., Dillworth-Bart, J. E., & Mueller, U. (2006b). Executive function and the promotion of social-emotional competence. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27(4), 300–309. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2006.04.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sagvolden, T., Johansen, E. B., Aase, H., & Russell, V. A. (2005). A dynamic developmental theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) predominantly hyperactive/impulsive and combined subtypes. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28(3), 397. doi:10.1017/S0140525X05000075.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sami, N., Carte, E. T., Hinshaw, S. P., & Zupan, B. A. (2003). Performance of girls with ADHD and comparison girls on the Rey-Osterrieth complex figure: evidence for executive processing deficits. Child Neuropsychology, 9(4), 237–254. doi:10.1076/chin.9.4.237.23514.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sattler, J. (2001). Assessment of children: Cognitive applications. In. San Diego: Sattler.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sattler, J., & Dumont, R. (2004). Assessment of Children: WISC-IV and WPPSI-III Supplement. San Diego: Sattler.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seidman, L. J. (2006). Neuropsychological functioning in people with ADHD across the lifespan. Clinical Psychology Review, 26(4), 466–485. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.01.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seidman, L. J., Biederman, J., Faraone, S. V., Wever, W., & Ouellette, C. (1997). Toward defining a neuropsychology of attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: performance of children and adolescents from a large clinically referred sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65(1), 150–160. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.65.1.150.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sobel, M. (1982). Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. In S. Leinhart (Ed.), Sociological methodology (pp. 290–312). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Southam-Gerow, M. A., & Kendall, P. C. (2002). Emotion regulation and understanding—implications for child psychopathology and therapy. Clinical Psychology Review, 22(2), 189–222. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(01)00087-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stormshak, E. A., Bierman, K. L., Bruschi, C., Dodge, K. A., & Cole, J. D. (1999). The relation between behavior problems and peer preference in different classroom contexts. Child Development, 70(1), 169–182. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00013.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2003). Wechsler intelligence scale for children, 4th Ed (WISC-IV) technical and interpretive manual. San Antonio: Harcourt Brace.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weyandt, L. L. (2005). Executive function in children, adolescents, and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: introduction to the special issue. Developmental Neuropsychology, 27(1), 1–10. doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2701_1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Widaman, K. (2006). Missing data: what to do with or without them. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 71(3), 42–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., Nigg, J. T., Faraone, S. V., & Pennington, B. F. (2005). Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biological Psychiatry, 57(11), 1336–1346. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, B. R., Ponesse, J. S., Schachar, R. J., Logan, G. D., & Tannock, R. (1999). Development of inhibitory control across the life span. Developmental Psychology, 35(1), 205–213. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.1.205.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, 543 Moore Building, University Park, PA, 16802, USA

    Cynthia L. Huang-Pollock

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA

    Amori Yee Mikami

  3. Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA

    Linda Pfiffner & Keith McBurnett

Authors
  1. Cynthia L. Huang-Pollock
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Amori Yee Mikami
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Linda Pfiffner
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Keith McBurnett
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Cynthia L. Huang-Pollock.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Huang-Pollock, C.L., Mikami, A.Y., Pfiffner, L. et al. Can Executive Functions Explain the Relationship Between Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Social Adjustment?. J Abnorm Child Psychol 37, 679–691 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-009-9302-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-009-9302-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation